FYBA Psychology English Semester 1-munotes

Page 1

1Unit -1
THE STORY OF PSYCHOLOGY AND
THINKING CRITICALLY WITH
PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE -I
Unit Structure :
1.0 Objective
1.1 What is psychology ?
1.1.1 Roots of psychology: Psychological science is born
1.1.2 Psychological Science Develops
1.1.3 Conte mporary psychology
1.1.4 Psychology’s biggest question Nature v /s Nurture
controversy
1.1.5 The three main levels of analysis
1.1.6 Subfields of psychology
1.2 Summary
1.3 Improve your retention and grades
1.4 References
1.0 OBJECTIVES
The chapt er here explains what psychology is all about.
It explains the milestones in psychology’s early development.
Understanding how a beh aviour is explained or analysed at
three different levels.
Understanding subfields of psychology.
1.1 WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental
processes. Behaviour includes all of our external or overt actions
and reactions such as talking, walking, facial expressions, etc.
Mental processes refer to all the internal or overt actions of o ur
mind such as thinking, feeling, remembering, etc.
Psychology is considered to be scientific because
psychology studies people and their behaviour in a systematic
manner through careful and controlled observations. The findings of
psychology can be ver ified and re -verified. Existing theories of
psychology are modified in the light of new findings. However,munotes.in

Page 2

2psychology is not as exact science as pure sciences such as
physics and chemistry. In pure sciences such as physics,
chemistry, etc. it is possible t o make absolutely accurate
predictions, but the subject of psychology is human behaviour.
Each human being is unique and different from the other and
therefore one cannot predict with hundred percent accuracy, how a
person will behave in a given situation. Yet Psychology is a science
since it rigorously follows scientific methods.
Psychology has four goals -It describes what is happening,
explains why it is happening, predicts when will it happen again and
through this prediction tries to control human b ehaviour, i.e., it
determines how human behaviour can be changed.
1.1.1 Roots of psychology: Psychological science is born :
Psychology as a subject started when human beings asked
questions like who we are? how ourthoughts ,feelings and actions
are p roduced and how do we understand and manage our
environment and people around us. Psychological science is born.
It is human nature to be curious about ourselves and the world
around us.Before 300 B.C.E the G reek naturalist and philosopher
Aristotle spoke about learning memory, motivation, emotion
perception and personality. Some of the ideas put forward by him
were like heavy meal produces gases and it makes us sleepy. It
also collects heat and surrounds heart which becomes a source of
personality. Though ,in modern times , we laugh at Aristotle’s
guesses but we have to acknowledge that at least he was asking
right questions.
Philosopher’s thinking about human behaviour continued till
birth of psychology unt il December 1879 when Wilhelm W undt
started a la boratory at university of Liepzig in Germany. He
developed experimental app aratus to measure reaction time. He
observed that people take longer time to be aware of their
awareness, e.g., his machine measured the time lag between
people’s hearing a ball hit a platform and their pressing a telegraph
key. People responded in about one tenth of a second when asked
to press the key as soon as the sound occurred and in about two
tenth of a second when asked to press the key as soon as they
were consciously aware of perceiving the sound. Wundt was trying
to measure atoms of mind -the fastest and simple mental
processes. Thus,thefirst psycholo gical laboratory was staffed by
Wundt and his graduate students .Soon t he new science of
psychology became organised into two different branches or
schools of thought. These two early schools were structuralism and
functionalism .munotes.in

Page 3

3Structuralism:
Edward Bradf ord Titchener student of Wilhelm Wundt was
interested in discovering structure of mind. Heengaged people in
self-reflective introspection (looking inwards) and trained them to
report elements of experiences as they looked at a rose or listened
to a metronome or smelled a scent or tasted a substance. He
asked them to report their immediate sensations ,t h e i ri m a g e sa n d
feelings while going through these experiences .He further asked
them to relate these sensations to one another. Butunfortunately, it
was noticed that the introspection method was unreliable for two
reasons –
a.) it required smart and verbal people
b.) its results differed from person to person and from experience to
experience.
So, the method of introspection was not accepted for its
subjective nature and structuralism did not continue to exist. Trying
to understand mind’s structure from simple elements was like trying
to understand a car by examining its disconnected parts.
Functionalism:
Philosopher psychologist William James was influenced by
evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin and thought it would be more
useful to consider the evolved functions o fo u rt h o u g h t sa n d
feelings. For example, thinking is done by brain but the question
arises why it is done . James assumed that thinking is developed
because of its adaptive nature ,it helped our ancestors tosurviv e.
Similarly, consciousness serves the function ofhelping us to
remember past ,adjust to present and plan for our future .William
James ,afunctionalist, engage into the explorations of down to
earth emotions ,memories ,will power ,habits and moment to
moment streams of consciousness.
William J ames is more known for his writing and mentoring
in 1890 he admitted Mary Whito n Calkins a lady student to his
graduate seminar in spite of the objections of Harvard’s President
these were the years when women did not hav ear i g h tt o vote.
When C alkins joined allother male students dropped out.So,
James tutored her alone .L a t e r on,she completed all ofHarvard’s
Ph.D.requirements, by scoring more then all male students but still
she was denied a degree that she earned from Harvard university .
Instead she was offered a degree from Radcliffe College ,that was
Harvard’s undergraduate sister school for women. Calkins resisted
the unequal treatment and refused the degree. Later on, she
became a distinguished memory researcher and the American
Psychological Ass ociations (APA) first female President in 1905 .munotes.in

Page 4

4Later on, Margaret Floy Washburn was thefirst female
psycholog ist having Ph.D. degree. S he wrote an influential book
titled as “The Animal Mind” and became second fe male APA
President in 1921 .But W ashbur n’sgender closed doors for her
also. Her thesis was the first foreign study Wundt published in his
journal but s he could not join all male organisation of experimental
psychologist founded by Titchener . This is in stark contrast to
recent past from 1996 t o2 0 1 2 ,w h e n out of 16 elected presidents of
APA, 8w e r e women. In United States, Canada, Europe most
psychology doctorates are earned by women now.
Publisher Henry Holt was i mpress ed by writings of William
James and he offered hima contract towriteatextbook of thenew
science of psychology. James agreed and began his work in 1878
with the view of completing it in two years but actually it took him 12
years to complete “Principles of psychology ”.This is a book that
introduced psychology to educated pu blic. More than a century
later, people still marvel at the brilliance and elegance of this book.
1.1.2Psychological Science develops
Let us see how psychology continued to develop from 1920s
to till today. In the initial phase, many psychologists belie ved that
compared to everything else in our external universe, if there is one
thing about which everyone has maximum knowledge then that is
about himself/herself. We have maximum knowledge about
ourselves because of inside information. In conformity to th is idea,
Wundt and Titchener also focused on inner sensations images and
feelings. William James u sed introspecti ve examination for
understanding elements of consciousness and emotions. So, the
early psychologist define psychology as a science of mental li fe.
Behaviourism:
In 19 20s John B.Watson and B .F. Skinner rejected the
method of introspection and redefined psychology as scientific
study of observable behaviour. They argued that science is based
onobservation. We cannot observe sensations, feelin gs or
thoughts and therefore they cannot be studied .However, people’s
behaviour as they respond to different situations can be observed
and recorded, so only observable behaviour should be considered
in scientific study of psychology .M a n y psychologists agreed that
behaviourism was one of the major force in psychology right into
1960 s.
Freudian Psychology:
The other major force at that time was Freudian Psychology.
In 1940, Sigmund Freud spoke about the unconscious thought
process es and an emotional resp onse to childhood experiences
and their influence on our behaviour .Just as in 1900s, the
behaviourists had rejected prevailing definition of psychology at thatmunotes.in

Page 5

5time, similarly, two other groups rejected the definition of
psychology that was prevailing in 1960s.
Humanistic Psychology:
Humanistic psychologist like Carl Rogers and Abraham
Maslow found that Freudian perspective and behaviourism were
limited approaches to understand human behaviour. They pointed
out that instead of focusing our attention o nt h em e a n i n go fe a r l y
childhood memories (as propagated by Freud) or learning of
conditioned responses (as propagated by behaviourists), it is
important to pay attention to the ways that current environment al
influences can nurture or limit our growth pot ential and satisfy our
need for love and acceptance. More than early childhood
experiences and learning of conditioned response, humanist felt
that the current env ironmental conditions influence the potential of
growth.
Cognitive Psychology:
The rebellio no ft h e second group of psychologists who
rebelled during 1960s is known as Cognitive Revolution. This
revolution once again believed that itis important to see how mind
processes and retains information. Cognitive psychology
scientifically explores the way we perceive ,process and remember
information. Cognitive neuroscience, an interdisciplinary study ,has
enriched our knowledge about brain activity underlying mental
activity. It has given us new ways to understand ourselves and to
treat disorders such asdepression.
In the light of this historical background, we can summarize
psychology’s concern about observable behaviour and inner
thoughts and feelings by defining psychology as the science of
behaviour and mental processes. Let us analyse the definit ion.
Behaviour :It is anything that organism does. It is any action that
can observed and recorded ,may be smiling, yelling, studying,
talking, running etc.
Mental processes :These are internal susceptive experiences on
the basis of which inferences can be drawn about the behaviour
like sensations perception, dreams, thoughts, beliefs and feelings.
Science: Psychology is less a set of findings than a way of asking
and answering questions.
1. 1.3 Contemporary Psychology :
Psychology as science emerged f rom the field of biology and
philosophy. Wilhelm Wundt was a philosopher and psychologist,
William James was an American Philosopher. Freud was a
physician; Ivan Pavlov was a Russian Physiologist. The mostmunotes.in

Page 6

6influential child observer Jean Piaget was a Swiss biologist. Morton
Hunt in 1993, called them as“Magellan so ft h eM i n d ”( Ferdinand
Magellan (1489 –1521) was a famous Portuguese navigator who
made many discoveries and explored areas of the world previously
unknown to his fellow Europeans. Because early p sychologists
made exciting discoveries and explored unknown frontiers, they
were preparing the way (they were pioneers) for future
psychologists and can thus be considered “Magellans of the mind.”
Thus, Morton Hunt held that psychology originated in seve ral
fields and in many countries. Even today 's psychologist are the
citizens of many different countries. The international Union of
Psycholog ical Science has 71 nations from Albania to Zimbabwe as
its members. In China, the first department of Psychology at
university level was opened in 1978 and in 2008 there were nearly
200 Departments of Psychology at university level. Apart from that,
due to international publications, joined meetings, advent of
internet, collaboration across the borders, Psychology is growing
rapidly and globalizing. Today Psychology is not only developing at
various places but the topics of interest also vary from the study of
nerve cell to the study of international conflicts.
1.1.4 Psychology’s Biggest Question: Nature v/s Nurtur e:
The biggest and most persistent question faced by
psychologists has been whether human traits develop at birth or
later on through experience. Plato (428 -348 B.C.E.) , assumed that
character and intelligence and certain ideas are inherited. Aristotle (
384-322 B.C.E.) on the other hand, argued that everything that is
there in our mind has come through external world through our
senses. In other words, he said that whatever information,
sensation, feelings are stored in our mind has come through our
experi ences of external world.
In 1600 s,John Locke also argued that mind is a blank sheet
on which experiences write .R e n é Descartes did not agree with this
suggest ion and believed that some ideas are innate. Two centuries
later, Descartes’ ideas got support from a naturalist, Charles
Darwin.
The role of internal or innate factor was supported by
Charles Darwin’s concept of natural selection. He explained the
diversity in different organisms of the same species as stemming
from the process of natural select ion. Thus, nature selects the traits
that best enable organism to survive and reproduce in a particular
environment. Darwin believed that theory explained not only animal
structure ( such as polar bear’s white coat) but animal behaviour
also( such as the em otional expressions linked to lust and rage) .
This theory of evolution as proposed by Charles Darwin has
become an important principle for p sychology in 21stcentury.munotes.in

Page 7

7The nature and nurture issue has continued to remain a
major concern of psychologist toda y.Moreand more psychologist s
are exploring relative contributions of biology and experience and
exploring questions such as:
1.How and why wehuman bei ngs are alike ? Is it because of our
commo nb i o l o g y andevolutionary history?
2.How and why we human beings are diverse? Is it because of
our differing environments?
3.Diversities or variation sare found .Are they because of genetic
factors, or variation in the environmental conditions?
4.Are gender differences caused by biological conditions or are
they created byexisting social environment?
5.Is children’s grammar mostly innate or formed by experience?
6.Are personality and intelligence differences caused by
hereditary conditions or by environmental conditions?
7.Aresexual behaviour smore ‘ pushed ’by inner biology o r‘pulled’
byexternal incentives?
8.Psychological disorders such as depression should be treated
as disorders of brain or disorders of thoughts?
Contemporary science resolves this Nature and Nurture
controversy by saying “Nurture works on what nature endow s”.In
other word’s nature biological lyendow s us with enormous capacity
to learn and adapt and nurture as environment decides how this
endowment will flourish or will develop. Moreover ,every
psychological event (every thought, every emotion) is
simultane ously biological event. For example, depression can be
both –a brain disorder and a thought disorder.munotes.in

Page 8

81.1.5 Psychology’s Three Main Levels ofAnalysis:
Table 1.1 Psychology's Current Perspectives: -(Adopted from
David Myers)
Perspective s Focus Sample Questions Example of Subfields
Using this
Perspectives
Neuroscience How the body
and brain enable
emotions,
memories, and
sensory
experiences.How is blood
chemistry linked with
moods and motives?
How do pain
messages travel from
the hand to the brain?Biological;
Cognitive ;
Clinical
Evolutionary How the natural
selections of
traits have
promoted the
survival of genesHow does evolution
influence behavioural
tendencies?Biological;
Developmental ;
Social
Behaviour
geneticsHow our genes
and our
environment
influence our
individual
differencesTo what extent are
psychological traits
such as intelligence,
sexual orientation,
vulnerability to
depression products
of genes? Of our
environment?Personality;
Developmental
Psychodynami
cHow behaviour
springs from
unconscious
drives and
conflictsHow can someone’s
personality traits and
disorders be
explained by
unfulfilled wishes and
childhood traumas?Clinical;
Counselling ;
Personality
Behavioural How we learn
observable
responseHow do we learn fear
particular objects or
situations? What is
the most effective
way to change our
behaviour, say to lose
weight or stop
smoking?Clinical;
Counselling ;
Industrial -organizationalmunotes.in

Page 9

9Cognitive How we encode,
process, store,
and retrieve
informationHow do we use
information in
remembering ?
Reasoning?
Solving problems?Cognitive;
Clinical ;
Counselling ; industrial -
organizational
Social -cultural How behaviour
and thinking vary
across situations
and culturesHow are we alike as
members of one
human family? How
do we differ as
products of our
environment?Developmental; social;
Clinical ;c o u n s e l l i n g
Biopsychosocial Approach:
Each one of us is a complex system that is part of a larger
social system. At micro level, we are made up of smaller systems
such as nervous system and body organs, which is made up of still
smaller systems such as cells, molecules and atoms. These tiered
systems suggest that different levels of analysis are
complementary, because everything is related to everything else .
All these levels put together are called biopsychosocial approach .
Biological influences include influences such as natural
selection of adaptive traits, genetic predisposition of responding to
environment, brain mechanism and hormonal influences.
Psychological influences include learn ed fears and
expectations, emotional responses ,cognitive processing and
perceptual interpretations .T h e s e two contribute to behaviour or
mental processes that are expressed in socio cultural conditions
like presence of others, expectations of family, society and culture,
influence of friends, other group sand compelling models such as
media. Understanding at each level gives a perspective to human
behaviour.
Each of these levels give a unique advantage to look at
behaviour or mental processes. Yet each by itself is incomplete.
Psychologists have variety of perspectives and ask different
questions and have their own limits. For example, Letus see how
different perspectives understand anger. Person studying from
neuros cience perspective will focus on brain circuit sthat cause
anger.
Evolutionary perspective will focus on how anger has helped the
survival of the organism.
Behaviour genetics may study how heredity and
experience influence an individua l differences in
temperament.munotes.in

Page 10

10Psycho dynamic perspective may say that it is an expression of
unconscious hostility.
Behavioural perspective may try to see which external stimuli
triggers anger.
Cognitive perspective will explain how given situ ation affects our
anger and how anger affects our Thinking.
Socio cultural perspective will concern itself with how
expression of anger may vary in different socio -cultural
conditions.
All these perspectives do not still give a complete picture of
human behaviour. The table 1.1summarises key perspectives and
their areas of concern and subfields of psychology, and
perspectives.
1.1.6 Subfields ofPsychology:
Some psychologist sconduct basic research that builds
psychology’s knowledge base for example Biological psychologist
they will explore the link between brain and mind, Developmental
psychologists will study behaviour and abilities from womb to tomb ,
Cognitive psychologists study how we perceive think and solve
problems ,Personality psychologists investigate our relatively
permanent traits ,social psychologist study how we get impacted by
others’ social behaviour and h ow do we impact their behaviour,
Counselling psychologists listen carefully to a client’s troubled
thoughts and emotions and A Soci al-cultural psychologists will be
studying the variations in human values and behaviour in different
cultures.
Some psychologists e ngage in basic research .Ina p p l i e d
research, practical problems are tackled like industrial psychologist
helping compan ies to select employees or develop training
programs etc. However, all subfields of psychology have common
goal –to describe and explain behaviour and the mind underlying it.
The specific branches of psychology are given below.
Biological psychologist: They try to understand the relationship
between functioning of brain and behaviour. Biopsychology studies
how emotions, thoughts and behavior are affected by the brain, the
nervous system and neurotransmitters in humans and animals. The
field can be viewed as a combination of neuroscience and basic
psychology. It focuses on how damage to specific areas of the
brain affects neural function and behavior, as well as the influence
of drugs and other mind altering substances on the brain and body.
Developmental psychologist: They study how behaviour ,a b i l i t i e s
change throughout our entire life span. It is the scientific study of
growth, change and stability in behavior that occurs throughoutmunotes.in

Page 11

11lifespan. It looks into the physical, cognitive, personality and social
development. It studies the impact of heredity and environment on
development, e.g. age construct, cohorts.
Cognitive psychologist: They are concerned with how we
perceive, think and solve problems. It is a study of mental
processes such as "attention, lan guage use, memory, perception,
problem solving, creativity, and thinking.” The term Cognition refers
to the mental processes. The mental processes involve gaining
knowledge and comprehension. These processes include thinking,
knowing, remembering, judging, and problem -solving. These are
higher -level functions of the brain and cover language, imagination,
perception, and planning.
Personality psychologist: They investigate how traits influence
behaviour. Personality psychology is a branch of psychology that
studies personality and its variation among individuals .It is a
scientific study which aims to show how people are individually
different due to psychological forces.
Social psychology :I tis a study of how individual behaviour is
influenced by people around him. It is a scientific study of how
people’s thoughts, feelings and behaviors are influenced by the
actual, imagined or implied presence of others.
Socio -cultural psychology :It suggests that human behavior is
influenced by social and cultural forces outside the individual. This
perspectiv e involves ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, religion,
social class, family traditions, culture, nationality, etc.
Industrial organisational psychology :It is a study of behavior in
work settings and the application of psychological principles to
change work behavior. It covers topics such as selection, training
programs, performance evaluation, leadership, motivation and job
satisfaction, reducing stress, consumer behavior, cultural diversity,
globalization, technology, etc. I t uses psychological c oncepts and
methods to help organizations and companies to boost their morale
and productivity, design products and implement systems.
Engineering psychology: It is the science of human behaviour
and capability, applied to the design and operation of sys tems and
technology. It is concerned with the adaptation of the equipment
and environment to people, based upon their psychological
capacities and limitations. Its objective is improving overall system
performance and comfort.
Clinical Psychology :It is c concerned with understanding,
evaluating, predicting, alleviating and preventing intellectual,
emotional, biological, psychological, social and behaviouralmunotes.in

Page 12

12maladjustment , disability and discomfort. It is a applied to a wide
range of client population, acros s the life span, in varying cultures
and at all socioeconomic levels. It aims to promoting human
adaptation, adjustment, and personal effectiveness and
satisfaction.
Psychology and helping professions :Psychology also deals
with practical problems like ho wt oh a v eah a p p ym a r r i a g e ,h o wt o
overcome anxiety and depression or how to bring up healthy
children.
Counselling psychology: Counselling psychologist help people to
cope -up with challenges and crisis in academic, vocational and
marital life. They help to improve personal and social functioning.
The counseling psychologists deal with less serious problems
compared to clinical psychologists.
Psychiatry: Psychi atrist are medical person nel, who provide
medication for psychological issues like depression, a nxiety.
Positive Psychology: Martin Seligman and others have focused
researched or human strengths and human potentialities. Positive
psychology explores positive emotions, positive character traits and
enabling institutions. They are more concerned with , if psychology
contribute to good life and help a person to lead ameaningful life. It
is a science of positive aspects of human life, such as happiness,
optimism, social connectedness, well -being and flourishing. It
believes that People want to lead meanin gful and fulfilling lives, to
cultivate what is best within themselves, to enhance their
experiences of love, work, and play
Community psycholog y:Community psychologists work to create
social and physical environment that are healthy for all. For
example , if there is a problem of bullying in school, they will try to
change that. Some psychologists may train students to cope with
stress of transition from elementary school to middle school.
Community psychologists seek to study how the school and
neighbour hood give birth and encouragement to bullying.
Forensic Psychology: Forensic psychologists apply psychology’s
principles and methods in the criminal justice system. They may
assess witness credibility, or testify in court on a defendant’s state
of mind a nd future risk. Forensic psychologists apply psychology to
the criminal justice system ,assess offenders’ state of mind at time
of offense -Sanity evaluations ,assess competency of individuals to
stand trial -Competency evaluations ,assess risk of re -offending ,
assess ,witness credibility ,assess malingering and deception ,
evaluate child custody in divorce ,prepare for and provide testimony
in court ,assess consistency of factual information across multiplemunotes.in

Page 13

13sources ,advise police on mental illness and crim inal psychology ,
consult with attorneys on mental health issues in the court system ,
work with at -risk populations such as trauma survivors ,design
correctional programs , etc.
In summary, we can say psychology is a subject that relates
to many fields, p sychologist teach in medical schools, law schools,
theological seminaries they work in hospitals, factories and
corporate houses. They engage in interdisciplinary studies such as
psychohistory (psychological analysis of historical character,
psycholinguist ics the study of language and thinking psycho -
ceramics the study of crackpots.
Psychologist have gained insight into brain, mind dreams,
memories and depression and joy. Psychology helps us to
understand how we perceive, think, feel and act.
Strengths & Weaknesses of Psychology:
Psychology also influences modern culture. Learning about
psychology’s findings changes people. They do not judge
psychological disorders as moral failings. They no longer believe
that psychological disorders should be treated w ithaspunishment
and ostracism. Similarly, now they do not regard women mentally
inferior to men. They no longer view and rear children as ignorant,
wilful beast that need taming. Morton Hunt rightly pointed out that
knowledge has modified attitudes and t hrough them behaviour.
Once we are aware of how our body is connected to our mind, how
a child’s mind grows , how our perceptions are formed and how our
memory works, how people differ across the world, our way of
thinking will change forever.
However, p sychology has certain limitations. It can’t answer
questions such as –
Why should I live?
Why should I do anything?
Is there any purpose in life that even death cannot destroy?
Yet psychology deepens our appreciation for how we
humans perceive, think a nd feel and act. It enriches our lives and
broadens our vision.
Before closing this chapter, let me talk about one of the most
important concerns among students and that is how to improve
their memory power and grades in the exam.
Close -up: Improve yo ur Retention and Grades:
Very often students are under the impression that to
memorize their new learning properly, they need to keep revisingmunotes.in

Page 14

14the new lesson, i.e., to keep rereading it again and again. But
memory researcher Henry Roediger and Jeffrey Kar picke (2006)
believe that apart from rehearsal of the material you need to
repeatedly do self -testing yourselves. They called it testing effect
orretrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning .T h e y
demonstrated in one of their studies in 2008 that students could
recall the meaning of 40 previously learned Swahili words much
better if they repeatedly tested themselves, rather than if they spent
the same time restudying the words.
The key is that to master new information, you must actively
process that information. Our brain is like a muscle that grows
stronger with exercise. Many studies have shown that people can
learn and remember better when they put material to be learnt in
their own words, rehearse it and then retrieve and review it again.
These principles are included in a method called SQ3R
study method . SQ3R is an acronym for 5 steps –Survey,
Question, Read, Retrieve and Review.
Survey refers to taking a bird’s eye view of the material that
needs to be learnt. You should scan the head lines and notice how
the material is organized. Secondly, you need to try and answer its
learning objective questions and if you try and fail to retrieve the
answer, that actually helps you to learn. The reason is that those
who test their understanding be fore reading and find out what is it
that they don’t know yet, will learn and remember better.
The third activity is read actively, i.e., search for the answers
to the questions. At each sitting, read only that much of a chapter
that you can absorb with out getting tired. Read actively and
critically. Ask questions, take notes, make the ideas as your own.
The fourth activity is retrieve. Retrieve the main ideas of the
chapter. Test yourself. This will help you to realize what and how
much you know and what you still need to master. The testing itself
will help you to learn and retain information more effectively. For
effective learning, test yourself repeatedly.
The fifth and final step is to review. Read over any notes that
you have taken and quickl y review the whole chapter. Write down
what a concept is before rereading to check your understanding.
Apart from SQ3R method, some other techniques will also
help in improving your learning. These are –
Distribute Your Study Time -Spaced practice help si nb e t t e r
retention than massed practice. It means that you will remember
material better when you space your time over many studymunotes.in

Page 15

15sessions rather than trying to mug up in one session. Many
students make that mistake. They try to mug up entire study
mate rial just in one day before exam and they miserably fail to
retain that information. It should be memorized over several days in
small portions at a time. Instead of trying to learn the entire chapter
in one sitting , read just one section and then turn to something else.
Interleaving your study of one subject with study of other subjects
will boost long term retention and will protect you from false
overconfidence that you have memorized the whole chapter.
Learn to Think Critically -Whether you are readi ng at home or
you are learning in a class, note people’s assumptions and values.
Pay attention to what perspectives or biases underlies an argument
and evaluate the evidence or proof given for those assumptions.
Find out whether these assumptions are based on informative
experiments or are just anecdotal. Evaluate their conclusions and
judge whether there are alternative explanations.
Process Class Information Actively –Listen for the main ideas
and sub -ideas of a lecture. Write them down. Ask questions d uring
and after class. In class, process the information actively, that will
help you to understand and retain it better. Make the information as
your own by taking notes in your own words. Relate what you read
to what you already know. Tell someone about it.
Overlearn –Very often people suggest that overlearning improves
retention. But there are pitfalls to that. We tend to overestimate how
much we know. The feeling of familiarity can be deceptively
comforting. For optimum effectiveness, one should use re trieval
practice more and should spend extra study time on testing his
knowledge.
Memory expert Elizabeth Bjork and Robert Bjork (2011)
gave following advice to improve your retention and grades:
“Spend less time on the input side and more time on the
output side, such as summarizing what you have read from
memory or getting together with friends and asking each other
questions. Any activities that involve testing yourself -that is,
activities that require you to retrieve or generate information, rathe r
than just representing information to yourself –will make your
learning both more durable and flexible”.
1.2 SUMMARY
Points to remember
Aristotle before 300 B.C theorised ab out learning memory,
motivation ,emotion, perception and personality, psych ology as a
science was born at university of Leipzig in 1879munotes.in

Page 16

16The first two schools of thought that emerged were
structuralism and functionalism. William Wundt spoke about
elements of mind or atoms of mind.
Wundt’s student Edward Titchner used method of
introspection to study elements of mind but the subjective nature of
the method was not accepted by thinkers. Philosopher psychologist
William James was more concerned with studying the functions of
thoughts and feelings thus rose functionalism
Charles D arwin also spoke about adaptive functions of
various human behaviours
In 1890 James mentored first lady student Mary Whiton
Calkins who became a memory researcher and the first woman to
be President of American Psychological Association Margaret Floy
Washburn was the first woman to receive psychology Ph.D. she
wrote on “Animal Behaviour”
Henry Ho lt offered a contract to William James for writing a
textbook of new science of psychology it was completed after 12
years known as Principles of psychology
Early pioneers define psychology as a science of mental life
John Watson, B F Skinner redefined psychology as scientific study
of observable behaviour
Sigmund Fraud in 1940’s spoke about unconscious thought
processes, carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow fo cused on current
environmental influences.
The second group of psychologists who rebelled against
earlier thinking is the cognitive revolution, they emphasise mental
processes. Cognitive neuroscience an interdisciplinary study is
concerned with brain act ivity and underlying mental processes to
include all these aspects today we define psychology as science of
behaviour and mental processes. Contemporary psychology,
Psychology is evolved from philosophy and biology. Wundt was
philosopher and physiologist J ames was a American philosopher
Freud was physician, Ivan Pavlov was Russian psychologist.
Jean Piaget was a biologist today’s psychologist are citizens of
many countries. International union of psychology has 71 nations
as its members.
The biggest qu estion faced by psychology today is nature or
nurture controversy. Today’s psychologist are more exploring
relative contributions of biology and experience, nature selects the
traits that best enable organism to survive and reproduce in themunotes.in

Page 17

17given environme nt. This is a issue that will be discussed throughout
the chapters. Psychology understands behaviour at three main
levels it is a bio -psychosocial approach. Biological influences like
Genetic Predispositions brain mechanism etc psychological
influences lik e learned fears expectations, emotions etc and social
influences are like influences of family, society, religion on the
whole.
The subfields of psychology are connected with the current
perspectives (Please refer to the table gives the subfields and the
related current perspectives) . Like any other field psychology also
has certain strengths and weaknesses. At the end, tips are given
on how to retain information in your memory and improve your
grades.
1.3QUESTIONS -IMPROVE YOUR GRADE
1.Write a note on roots of psychology
2.Explain the nature and origin of psychology
3.What is the historic or biggest question of psychology
4.Explain the different levels of analysis of human behaviour
5.Explain different sub fields of psychology and their re lation to
different perspectives.
1.4 REFERENCES
1)Myers, D. G. (2013). Psychology .10thedition; International
edition. New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint
2013
2)Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2008). Psychology. (Indian sub -
continent adaptation). New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) pvt
ltd.
munotes.in

Page 18

18Unit -2
THE STORY OF PSYCHOLOGY AND
THINKING CRITICALLY WITH
PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE -II
Unit Structure :
2.0 Objective
2.1 The Need for Psychological Science
2.1.1 The Hindsight Bias: I Knew of all along Phenomenon:
2.1.2 Overconfidence:
2.1.3 Perceiving Order in Random Events:
2.1.4 Scientific Attitude: Curiosity, Skepticism And Humble:
2.1.5 Critical Thinking:
2.2 How Do Psychologist Ask And Answer Questions
2.2.1 Scientific Method:
2.2.2 Description:
2.2.3 Correlation:
2.2.4 Experiment :
2.2.5 Statistical Reasoning in everyday life: Describing Data
2.2.6 Significant differences
2.3 Frequently asked Questions about psychology
2.4 Summery
2.5 Questions
2.6 References
2.0 OBJECTIVE
After reading this unit, you will be able to un derstand:
why psychology as a science is required
What are the error sthat we make while understanding human
behavior
What are the d ifferent scientific method and how statistical
reasoning is done
2.1THE NEED FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
There is commo n feeling that psychology explains or informs
what everyone is aware of. Some pace their faith in humanmunotes.in

Page 19

19intuitions. F or example prince Charles (2000) said that “buried deep
within each and every one of us there is an instinctive heartfelt
awareness that pr ovides -if we allow it to –the most reliable guide “.
Former president of America explained his decision to launch the
Iraq War by saying that he is a gut play er and he depends on
instincts. Today’s psychological science does study intuition but it is
obse rved that our thinking memory and attitude operate at two
levels conscious and unconscious. But still our intuitions are more
likely to go wrong. The three phenomena, hindsight bias,
judgmental overconfidence and even tendency to perceive patterns
in rando m events illustrate why we cannot solely depend on
intuition.
2.1.1 The Hindsight Bias: I Knew of all along Phenomenon:
Hindsight bias is defined as t he tendency to believe after
learning an outcome that one knew it all along and such an
outcome was ine vitable. I tisalso known as ( I knew it all along)
phenomenon .A cricket team’s captain is given the credit if the
match is won and captain is faulted if the match is lost. After
acricket match , war or election , its outcome usually seems to be
inevitable a nd then we say after the outcome 'See this is what Iwas
saying or I knew this would happen.
People have tremendous capacity and willingness to explain
away contradictory findings as justifiable based on common sense.
For example ,half the members of a group were told that
psychologist have found that separation weakens romantic
attraction and as the saying goes “out of site out of mind ”and ask ed
them to imagine why this might be true .Most people can and nearly
all will then view this true fi nding as no t very surprising .M e m b e r so f
the other half group were told that separation strengthens romantic
attractions and as the saying goes “absence makes the heart grow
fonder ”. They were also asked to imagine why this might be true.
People given this untrue res ult also imagine dit and beli evedthe
finding s.When two opposite findings look like a common sense ,
there is a problem .Such errors in a recollectio na n de x p l a n a t i o n so f
the events necessitate psychological research. Just asking people
how and why they fe lt or acted in a particular manner can be
misleading sometimes. This is not because common sense is
usually wrong, but because common sense describes what has
happened and does not tell what will happen.
At least in 100 studies done in different countri es among
children and adults , hindsight bias was observed .It is observed that
our intuitions are sometimes right and sometimes wrong. We are all
behavior watchers. So many of findings in psychology research
seems to be seen before. For example, many peopl eb e l i e v et h a t
love leads to happiness and they seem to be right as we have a
deep need to belong. But o urintuitions cannot be always correct.munotes.in

Page 20

20Forexample, the famous saying like familiarity breeds contempt or
dreams predict future may not be always true as the outcome of an
event always depends on number of environmental factors and also
onfactors such as brain chemical messages ( brain chemical
messages control our moods and memories) , effect of stress on a
capacity to fight disease and so on.
2.1.2 Ov erconfidence:
Wegenerally have a tendency to think that we know more
than we do. If someone asks us question about the certainty of our
answer we tend to be more confident than correct. The best
example is following anagram given by Richard Goranson (19 78).
He asked people to unscramble the alphabets:
WREAT –WATER
ETRYN –ENTRY
GRABE –BARGE
Now see how many seconds would you require to
unscramble this alphabet .Did hindsight bias come in the way?
Knowing answers make us overconfident. The solution would take
only 10 seconds for us to answer while in reality, problem solver
requires 3m i n u t e s .
The question arises are we better at predicting s ocial
behavior s?Students show that this may not be always the case.
Philip Turlock (1998,2005) collected mor et h a n2 7 0 0 0e x p e r t
prediction on world event such as future of South Africa orwhether
Quebec would separate from Canada. He found that t hese
predictions which experts made with 80% confidence on average
were right less than 40% of the time.
2.1.3 Percei ving Order in Random Events:
We are naturally eager to make sense of the world. Wallace
Stevens called it as out “rage for order”. We are more prone to
perceive patterns. For example, people tend to see a face or the
divine image son the tr eeso rv e g e t a b l es or moon, or seeing virgin
Mary’s image on grilled cheese sandwich .Wef i n do r d e re v e ni n
random data because random sequences often don’t look random
(FALK et al, 2009 Nickerson 2002, 2005) .In actual random
sequences patterns and streaks (such as repea ting digits )occur
more often than people expect and they don’t look random to
people and they over interpret them. S uch pictures we get to see
on media also so many dotted lines are shown and then question is
asked do you see an image. I n some random even ts,weird
seeming streaks do occur .Forexample, during 2010 world cup
German Octopus Paul was offered two boxes each with mussels
and with national flag on one side Paul selected the right box eight
out of eight times in predicting the outcome of Germany’ s7munotes.in

Page 21

21matches and Spain’s victory in finals. Such happenings are
extraordinary .W e struggle to give ordinary chance related
explanations to such event s. The main thing to note is that
hindsight bias,overconfidence and perceiving order in random
events leads us to overestimate our intuition .B u t scientific enquiry
helps us to differentiate reality from illusion.
2.1.4 Scientific Attitude: Curi osity, Skepticism And Humble :
Scientific attitude is marked by curiosity, skepticism and
humbleness. Every science is guided by curiosity ,a passion to
explore and understand without misleading or without being misled.
Scientific attitude is required to come close toreal answers of the
questions rather than the fantasy based answers .F o r this purpose
being skeptic ismis more important.
Being skeptical does not only mean being analytical and
durable but open for answers. So as a scientist psychologist ,
approach the world of behaviour with curious skepticism by asking
questions like wh at do you mean? How do you know? The skeptical
thinking allows a psychologist to select best suitable answers for
explanation of human behavior. For Example, c an astrologers
predict anyone's future based on position of the planet on the birth
chart? Is electroconvulsive therapy aneffecti ve treatment for
severe depression? Such questions are put to test by psychologist.
On the basis of such skeptical thinking the answer for the first
question is NO and YES for the second question.
Putting a scientific attitude into practice not only requ ires
curiosity skepticism but also humility. Humility refers to an
awareness of one's own vuln erability to errors and openness to
surprises and new perspectives. Historians of science tell us that
thesethree attitudes, curiosity, skepticism and humbleness have
made modern sciences more advanced. Some deeply religious
people may consider science as a threat ,b u tt he leaders of
scientific revolution, scientist like Isaac Newton and Copernicus
were deepl y religious, they were acting on the idea that "in order to
love and honor God it is necessary to fully ap preciate the wonders
of his handi work (Stark 2003) . However scientist, like anyone else,
have their egos and may cling to their precon ceptions ,b u tt h e
ideals of curiosity, skepticism and humbleness helps t om a i n t a i n
objectivity of the obtained information.
2.1.5 Critical Thinking:
Critical thinking is defined as a thinking that does not blindly
accept arguments and conclusions. Rather itexamines
assumptions discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence and
assess conclusions. Whether reading an e w sr e p o r to r listening to
conversation, critical thinkers ask questions.munotes.in

Page 22

22Scientist always ask questions li ke how do they know? What
is this person ’spersonal agenda? Is theconclusion based on gut
feeling or is th ere some kind of evidence ?Does t he evidence justify
a cause -effect conclusion? Oris there any cause and effect
relationship ?Arethere any alternative exp lanation s?
Critical thinking helps scientist to remain away from the
biases. A single occurrence i sunderstood from multiple
perspectives. The preconceived notions will be challenged. Thus,
critical thinking challenges the popular assumptions of behaviour.
For example in 2010 environmentalist proposed that bitter cold in
North America and EastCoast sn ow storms are caused by global
warming. Critical thinkers would ask questions like where is the
evidence .Is earth actually warming ?Are polar ice caps melting ?
Are vegetation patterns changing ?They will always look at the
evidence or the facts that suppo rt such inference
2.2HOW DO PSYCHOLOGIST ASK AND ANSWER
QUESTION S
The scientific attitude of psychologist is supported by
scientific method. Scientific method is a self -correcting process for
evaluating ideas with observation and analysis. Hunches, t he
plausible sounding explanation of human behavior are tested with
scientific method. This ideas or theories are tested against
evidence. If evidence supports then the idea or theory is accepted ,
otherwise theory is revised or rejected.
2.2.1 Scientific Method:
Before beginning with scientific method, it is necessary to
understand concept of Theory. In science, atheory explains with
principles that organize observations and predict behaviour or
events. A theory is simplified by organizing isolated fac ts.Atheory
offers summary by connecting facts with deeper principles. For
example, Effects of sleep deprivation on memory. Now there are
number of observations related to sleep deprivation. For example,
people with poor sleeping habits cannot answer ques tions in the
class, they tend to do badly on test. So, it can be concluded that
good sleep improves memory. So, sleep retention principle
summaries the facts related to effects of sleep loss.
So, it is suggested that sleep loss affects memory. Yet all
theories need to be tested. A good theory produces testable
predictions called as hypothesis. Hypothesis enables us to revise
and predict theory. Hypothesis is a testable prediction. The finding
may either confirm orreject the prediction. For example, t ot estour
theory about the effect of sleep on memory, people's retention ofmunotes.in

Page 23

23the course material after good night's sleep and after shortened
sleep is tested.
Sometimes our theories can bias our observations. We may
see what we expect to see .To have control on such biases
psychologist usually suggest operational definition o f procedures
and concepts for example hu nger might be defined as a hours
without eating, generosity as money contributed. These operational
definitions help others in replicating or repea ting the original
observations with different participants, materials and
circumstances if they get similar results the confidence in finding
the reliability grows. Definitions are carefully worded statements, so
that if becomes possible for others to repe at original observations
with different participants.
Finally, it can be said that theory is useful
(1.)to organize range ofself -reports and observations.
(2.)Theory implies predictions that anyone can use to check theory
or derive practical applicatio n for example if people sleep more will
their retention improve ?
A research may lead to a revised theory ,that better
organizes and predicts what we know .research may be replicated
and supported by similar findings
In psychology hypothesis can be tes ted and theories can be
revised by using descriptive methods such as a case study method,
naturalistic observation method, survey method s to observe and
describe behavior and why it is important to have random sampling .
2.2.2 Description:
Psychologist us ed case studies, naturalistic observations,
surveys to observe and describe behaviour .P r o fessional
psychologist describe behavior objectively and systematically by
using methods said above.
a) The Case Study Method:
It is one of the oldest method. It examines one individual in
depth in the hope that individual will reveal true things about
himself. The early knowledge about brain and areas of brain is
based on in depth case studies wh ichshowed impairment after and
some kind of brain damage.
Studies of only few chimpanzees have shown their capacity
for understanding and language. Jean Piaget 'stheory ofCognitive
development is based on case studies of his own children. In depth
case studies show what can happen and they give direction for
further study.munotes.in

Page 24

24However, case study method has limitations .F o re x a m p l e ,
individual cases may mislead us and we may draw false
conclusions , if the individual is atypical .Dramatic stories and
personal experiences attract our attention . But stories can mislead.
A case st udy cannot be used for drawing any general inference or
general principle that apply to all. Individual cases can suggest
fruitful ideas, but to find the general truth that covers individual
cases, we must answer questions with other research methods.
b)Naturalistic Observations:
It is observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring
situations without trying to manipulate, and control the situations.
Naturalistic Observations does not explain behavior .I to n l y
describes behavior . Such descriptio n of behavior can be more
revealing and interesting. For example, itw a sb e l i e v e dt h a to n l y
human beings use tools but it is observed that even chimpanzees
sometimes insert stick in termite mound and withdraw i t,e a t i n g the
stick ’sl o a do ft e r m i t e s.T h i si s unobtrusive naturalistic observation.
This was the observation without any interference or intervention.
Such unobtrusive naturalistic observations have led to later studies
of animal thinking, language and emotion. It was due to such
observation studies , we know now that chimpanzees and baboons
use deception. Similarly, there aresome interesting findings based
on naturalistic observation sa b o u th u m a nb e i n g s .For example,
human beings laugh 30 times more often in social situation
then in a solitary si tuation as we laugh 17 muscles contort our
mouth and squeeze our eyes and we emit series of 75milliseconds
vowel like sounds spaced about 1/5thof a second.
Another interesting example was a study done by Mat this
Mehl and James Pennebaker (2003 ).They s tudied 52 students
from university of Texas to find out what this introductory
psychology students say and do in their everyday life. They were
made to wear a belt which had electronically activated recorder
they wore it for 4 days .This recorder captured 30seconds of
students waking hours of every 12.5mins .Thus they had
information of more than 10000 half minute life slices by the end of
the study. The result showed that the percentage of slices when
students were talking to someone was 28 %and percentage of the
time they were at the keyboard of the computer was 9%.
Another study was done at university of Niveda Las Vegas to
find out what was there on the minds of the students. This was
done by giving them beepers. Ab e e p e ri n t e r r u p t e dt h e i rd a i l y
activ ities, signaling them to record their inner experiences at that
moment. T he result showed that there were five types of inner
experiences such as inner speech, inner seeing unsymbolized
thinking ,feeling and sensory awareness.munotes.in

Page 25

25Naturalistic observation e nabled Robert Levin and Ara
Norenzayan to compare pace of life in 31 countries. Pace of life
included walking speed , accuracy of public clock, and speed with
which postal clerk completed a request. It was observed that life is
fastest in Japan and western E urope whereas life is slower in
economically less developed countries. People in colder climates
tend to live at a faster pace and are more prone to die from heart
disease. However, naturalistic observation merely describes the
events but does not tell us why they take place.
C)The Survey Method:
Compared to case history method and naturalistic
observation method, the survey method looks at many cases but in
less depth. A survey ask speople to report their behaviours and
opinions. Questions about everyth ing from sexual practices to
political opinion are asked in survey. Some of the r ecent surveys
are-
Half of all Americans reported experiencing more happiness and
enjoyment than worry and stress on the previous day (Gallop ,
2010)
Online Canadians report ed using new forms of electronic
communication and thus receiving 35% fewer emails in 2010
than 2008
One in 5 peo ple across 22 countries believe that aliens beings
have come to earth and now walk among us as disguise
humans
68% of all humans say that rel igion is important in their daily
lives.
But a sking questions in survey can be very tricky answers
always depend on the way questions are worded and the type
of respondents selected.
Wording Effect: Even subtle changes in order of wording of
questions can have major effects .For e xample,p e o p l ea r em o r e
approving if instead of using the word "taxes" wecan the word
‘revenue enhancers ’ and instead of using the word "welfare" we
use the word “ aid of needy ”. Such wording can change the opinion
of the responde nts.
For example in 2009three in four Americans in one national
survey approved of giving people a choice of public or private
health insurance ,yetin another survey most Americans were not in
favour of public health care plan administered by federal
government that would compete directly with private health
insurance companies . It is here the wording brings about the total
change of opinionsmunotes.in

Page 26

26Random sampling: Survey method requires a sample that fairly
represents populations under study. It is notalwa ys possible to
survey everyone in the group. Every member of the population
must get an equal and fair chance of being selected as a part of
sample. This is called as random sampling. Insampling, there is
always a temptation to ignore sampling bias and dra w conclusion
on the basis of vivid but unrepresentative cases. But the best way
is to have representative sampling. Representative sampling can
be achieved with the help of random sampling where every student
from the total population has fair chance of be ing selected as a part
of population under study . Large representative samples are better
than small ones .
The point to remember is while considering the finding of the
survey think critically and look at the size of the sample .For survey
method, it isalways good to have larger representative sample than
larger sample that is not representative.
2.2.3 Correlation:
Naturalistic observation shows that one behavior is related to
other. We say that they correlate. Astatistical measure correlation
coeffi cient help sus to understand how t wo variables are closely
related .F o re x a m p l e , intelligence and school grades are closely
related.
The correlation coefficient can be graphically represented in
the form of scatter diagram. The following are scatter diag ram
representing different correlation. Each dot is the scatter plot
represents the values of two variables.
Fig. 2.1 Positive, Negative and Zero Correlation
Perfect positive correlation: Perfect positivecorrelation is a rare
phenomenon indicat ing increase in one variable accompaniedby
simultaneous increase in anothervariable. But generally, height and
weight are positively correlated.
Zero correlations: Zero correlations are found between the two
variabl es when they are not related. For example height and
intelligence.
munotes.in

Page 27

27Perfect negative correlation :Increase in one is accompanied by
simultane ous decrease to another variable .For example
intelligence and failures in the school.
Correlation & Causation:
Correlations only help us to predict, they explain the nature
of relationship. The major limitation of method of correlation is they
do not explain or specify whether one is the cause of other.
Correlation helps us to make predictions for example high
self esteem is negatively correlated with dep ression but it cannot be
said that it is the exact cause of depression. People with lower self
esteem are at the high risk of depression whatever may be the
strength of the relationship it cannot be said that one is the cause of
other. For example length o f marriage correlates with hair loss in
men. But it does not mean that marriage causes men to lose their
hair or balding men beco me better husbands . To summariz e
association does not prove causation.
2.2.4 Experiment ation :
Researchers have found that chi ldren who were breast feed
asinfants have somewhat higher intelligent scores then children
who were bottle fed with cow’s milk. There are three different
studies to compare breast fed children and bottle -fedchildren and
they say that breast fed children are the best. Now the question is
whether nutrients in mother’s milk contribute to brain development .
To find answers for such questions, to isolate cause and effect
relationship, researchers perform experiments. Experiments
help researchers in isolating e ffect of one or more factors by
1.Manipulating the factors of interest and
2. Holding constant (controlling the other factors).
They o ften create experimental group in which people
receive treatment and control group that does not rec eive
treatment. To minimize the effect of the other differences between
the two groups researchers randomly assign people to two
conditions. Random assignment equalizes two groups so age ,
attitude ,characteristics, etc. and their effects can b em i n i m i z e d .F o r
example, ina study on effects offeeding, one bottle fed group was
compared with the breast -fed group children by effectively
controlling all other factors except nutrition .This supported
conclusion that breast feed is best for development of intelligence.
Experi mental method is different than survey method .In
survey naturally occurring relationships are uncovered whereas in
experiment we manipulate the factors to determine the effects of
the variables.munotes.in

Page 28

28Experimenters often use blind (uninformed) technique about
what treatment each group is receiving .The study uses double
blind procedure where neither participants or researc hers are
aware of which group is receiving the treatment .T h i si sd o n et o
avoid placebo effect where results are caused by the expectations
alone.
Independent Variable:
Experiment is a research method in which an investigator
manipulates one or more factor to observe effect on some behavior
or mental process. Experiments enable researchers to isolate or
manipulate effect of one factor on othe r. This is an independent
variable. Independent because experimenter can vary it
independently of other factors. It is a variable as it is increased or
decreased by the experimenter.
Dependent Variable:
Dependent variable is a consequence of an independe nt
variable. Dependent valuable can be discussed as an effect of an
independent valuable. Both variables, independent and dependent,
are given precise operational definitions which specify the
procedures that manipulate the independent variable or measure
the dependent variable. These definitions answer the question,
“what do you mean?”. The answer to this question with a level of
precision enables others to replicate the study.
Confounding Variables:
The other factors which can potentially influence the results
of the independent variable are called as confounding variables.
The random assignment of the group can control the potential
influence of confounding variables.
In short, we can say a variable is anything that can vary (
infant’s nutrition, int elligence or anything -anything within the limits
of what is possible and ethical). Experiments aim to manipulate an
independent variable, measure the dependent variable and allow
random assignment to control all other confounding variables.
Experiments ca nb eh e l p f u li nt h e evaluation of social programs eg:
if early childhood education programmed can help in boo sting
impoverished children chances of academic success.
2.2.5 Statistical Reaso ning in Everyday Life :
Statistics are the tools that help us to see and interp ret what
unaided eye might miss .For example, r esearchers Michel Norton
and Dan Ariely invited 5522 to estimate the percent of wealth
possessed by richest 20 % in the country and their average guess
was 58% (dramatically underestimated) but i nreality, 20%
possessed 84% wealth of the nation. Statistics helps everyone .
One need not be deceived by such offhand estimates .munotes.in

Page 29

29Describing Data :
Once the r esearchers collect the data ,t h e yn e e dt oo r g a n i z e
and summarize it in some measurable way to mak et h a td a t am o r e
meaningful.
Measures of Central Tendency :
One of the simplest way is to convert it into bar graphs. The
other method is to summaries data by using measures of central
tendency. They give you single score that represents a set of
scores .Measures of central tendency can be given as follows.
1.Mean: An arithmetic average. It is a total sum of scores divided
by total number of scores .
2.Median :median is a midpoint, 5oth percentile. if all scores are
arranged from highest to lowest ,half sco res will be above the
median and half scores will be below the median .
3.Mode :It is the most frequent ly occurring score in the
distribution .
Measures of central tendency summaries the data but if
distribution is lopsided or skewed by a few way -out or ext reme
scores, where scores are either more on the higher side or lower
side then the measures of central tendenc yd on o tg i v ey o ur e a l
picture, because mean is influ enced by extreme scores. For
example, if you are looking for the mean of the marks scored by 50
students in class and in this group if there are 5 students scoring
100on 100 it will change sum total of score and it may inflate the
average score obtained by the students. So, in this case a few
atypical cases will distort the average
Median also does not give you complete picture for e.g. it is
said that 78% of the people in I ndia live life below poverty line if we
use median here can we say anything conclusive about the
people’s income in the 50% above and 50% below range in
reality top 22% of the people have maximum share in the income of
thenation. Once again, few atypical cases distort this score .
Measures of variation
As shown above, in central tendency, a single number
leaves out lot of information. So it helps to know how much
variation is there in the data. They tell you how similar or diverse
scores are. Averages derived from scores with low variability are
more reliable than averages derived from scores with high
variability.
The measures of variability are:
1.Range –It is the gap be tween thelowest score and the highest
score. I tp r o v i des crude estimate of variation .C o u p l eo fe x t r e m emunotes.in

Page 30

30scores once again can increase the gap between highest and
lowest score
2.Standar dd e v i a t i o n :it is another measure of finding out how
scores deviate fr om one another .T h i sm e a s u r et e l l sy o u
whether scores a re packed together or dispersed .T h e
comp utation tells you how much each scores differs from the
mean
Fig. 2.2 Standard deviation
The meaning of standard deviation can be understood b etter
if you know how much scores differ or tend to be away from
average. For example, large number of people show variations in
height weight intelligence scores , grades. Th esescores form a
symmetrical bell-shaped distribution where most cases fall near the
mean and few fall near theeither extremes of the curve. This
curve is also known as bell shaped curve.
The above figure 2.2shows that nearly 68% of the cases fall
within one standard deviation oneither side of the mean. It means
68% of the people taking intelligence test will score near plus or
minus 15 points of 100. Abo ut95% will score within plus or minus
30 points.
2.2.6 Significant differences
How do we know that w hether obse rved differences can be
generalized to other population? The ave rage score in one group
(fore.g. breast -fedbabies )could be considerably different from the
average score in another group (bottle fed babies )not because of
real differences but because of chance fluctuations in the pe ople
selected as a sample .T h eq u e s tion is how confidently can we say
that observed differences are not cause by chance factors and for
this purpose we can ask how reliable a nd significant differences
are. When is the observed difference reliable? It is when we have
to decide that w hether it is safe to gener alize from a sample under
study .A tt h i s time, the following three principles should be kept in
mind
munotes.in

Page 31

31a.Representative sampl es are better than bias samples .
Generalizations can be based on representative samples rather
than on exceptiona lcases. It is always not possible to have
random sample of whole population under study, so it is
important to keep in mind what population a study has sampled.
b.Less variable observations are more reliable than more
variable observations.
Observations w ith less variability can be more dependable as
more variability means possibility of other factors interfering with
the results
c.More number of case are better than fewer number of
cases.
Averages based on many cases are more rel iable than less
number of c ases .Tosummarize generalizations based on few
unrepr esentative case sare unreliable .
When the Difference Is Significant -Significance of observed
differences can be esta blished by statistical testing. When
averages of two sample are each reliable, meas ures of their
respective population (that is , if they are based on large number of
representative sample, with less variability) then their differences
are also likely to be reliable, fore.g. we study gender differences
and aggression we select two homo geneous group of men and
women (group with less variability) and hear there is a sample
average score with a large difference then we can have confidence
that there is a real difference between the two. Thus when sample
averages are reliable and the differ ence between them is large then
we say difference is statistically significant ,means observed
difference is not caused by chance factors.
In judging significance level of the observed difference
psychologist are very conservative . The conclusions canno tb e
stretched beyond what observation suggest. Statistical si gnificance
only says that there is a likelihood that results occur not by chance
factors but it does not say anything about importance of the results
2.3 FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS ABOUT
PSYCHO LOGY
The frequently asked questions about psychology are as
follows:
Can laboratory experiments eliminate everyday life ?
The experiment er intends to turn laboratory experiment into
a simplified reality, one that simulates and controls important
featu res of everyday life .H e r ee x p e r i m e n t er recreates
psychological forces under controlled c onditions .munotes.in

Page 32

32The purpose of experimenter is not to create real life
situations but to test theoretical principles (Mook 1983) For
example . In aggression studies, deciding w hether to push a button
that delivers a shock may not be same as slapping someone but
the underlying principle is the same. It is the resulting principle and
not the specific finding that help to explain every day behavior
When psychologists apply laboratory research on
aggression to actual violence they apply theoretical principles of
aggressive behavior .These are the principles refined on the basis
of laboratory research. Many such findings are based on laboratory
research it has to be remembered that psychological science
focuses less on particular behavior but more on seeking general
principles that help to explain many behaviours .
Does behavior depend onone’sc u l t u r eand gender ?
Joseph Henrich Setev en Heine, and Norenzayan (2010)
studie dWestern Educated, Industrialized , Rich , and Democratic
cultures (WEIRD cultures ). Most of them form only 12% of
humanity. Do such studi es tell about people in general ?C u l t u r e
refers to shared ideas and behaviours that one generation passes
onto thenext generation .It influences our standards of promptness
and frankness attitude towards premarital sex and varying body
shape s,tendency to be formal or informal ,willingness to maintain
eye contact ,distance maint ained in conversation and so on .
With th esedifferences in mind is it possible to say what is
true for one group or community is true for others also. Our
biological heritage says that we all are human beings and are one
but we grow up in a different social cultural environmental setup .
Some finding sare common but not all for example people diagnose
with dyslexia ,a reading disorder exhibit same malfunction of brain
irrespective of culture they belong to .Variation in language
interferes with communication across the cultures. Yet all
languages share deep principles of grammar.
People in different cultures vary in feelings of loneliness .W e
all are alike in certain aspects but we are different in many other
aspects
Why do psychologist study animals and what ethical guideline
safeguard hu man and an imal research participants?
Psychologist study animals for many reasons. Some are as follows:
a.They find animals fascinating .They want to find out how
different species learn ,think and behave
b.We share some common biology with animals. It can be used
for understanding treatment for human diseasesmunotes.in

Page 33

33c.The processes by which learning takes place are similar in
human beings and in animals especially in rats and monkeys.
The neural mechanism of learning can be understood by
performing experiments on animals
Roger Ulrich (1991) said that similarities between animals
and human beings does not defend ouruse of animals for the
purpose of research.
Is it right to place well being of human being above that of
animals?
Is it right to expose monkeys to HIV lik ev i r u s in search of
treatment of AIDS. Is our use of animals as natural as the behavior
of carnivorous animals ?The answers fo r these questions depend
onculture?
If human life is given first priority what safe guards should
protect wellbeing ofanimals .Different governments have given
different guidelines. British psychological society guidelines call for
housing of animals under reasonably natural living conditions with
companions for social animals (Lea 2000) .
American Psychological Association gu idelines state that
researchers must ensure
“the comfort, health and humane treatment” of animals and
minimize infections ,illness and pain (APA 2002) .
European parliament also now mandates standards for
animal’s care and housing (Vogel 2000) .A n i m a l studies have
benefited animals also Ohio team of researchers have identified
stress hormones in dogs .They have devised handling and stroking
methods to reduce stress in dogs. Other studies have helped in
improv ingcare and management of animals. By reveali ng our
behavioral kinship with animals and the remarkable intelligence of
chimpanzees, gorillas and other animals, experiments have led to
increased empathy and protection for them.
The Guidelines forPerforming Experiments on Human Beings:
The American Psychological Association Ethics code urges
researchers to obtain
1.Informed consent of potential participants
2.Protect them from harm and discomfort
3.Keep information confidential about each participant
4.Use deception or stress them temporarily only when it is
absolutely necessary and justifiable, e.g., some experimentsmunotes.in

Page 34

34won’t work if participants know everything beforehand and
participants might try to confirm the researcher’s prediction s.
5.Fully debrief people or explain the research afterwards most
unive rsities have their committees for ethics.
Is Psychology free of value judgments?
Psychology is not free of value judgments. Values do
influence what we study and how we study . There are questions
like Productivity or work morale. Should gender differen ces o r sex
discrimination be studied ? Should we study c onformity or
independence ?It has been observed that v alues do color the facts
Psychologist may hav e preconceptions that can bias
observations .E v e n the word sused for describing something reflect
values .F o r example, one person may describe a behavior as rigid
other may call it consistent. One person may speak about faith
other may term it as fanaticism . Professional judgments of how to
raise children, how to live life, how to have self-fulfillment inlife are
the value based advices .
Psychology cannot address all questions ,b u ti tS t u d i es how
learning can be enhanced .I tl ooks into how problems like war ,
overpopulation crime and family c risis can be dealt with .This
involves attitude and behavior. Psychology cannot speak about all
of life’s great questions but it addresses important questions.
2.4 SUMMARY
We often feel that our gut feeling is more important than
anything ales. It is the intuition that we use for understanding
human behavior. Intu ition has its own limitations. Three phenomena
likehindsight bias, over confidence and tendency to perceive an
order in random events suggest that we cannot solely depend on
intuition.
Hindsight bias refers tol knew of all along phenomena .It is
an err orin recollection . Overconfidence in a thinking that we know
mere than what me actually know we tend is be more confident
than correct.
Perceiving order in random events is our natural tendency to
make sense of our world the events are perceived is be t ogeth er
giving same kind of meaning .
The scientific attitude includes curiosity , skeptic ism and
humble ness . These are the three main components of scientific
attitude curiosity in asking questions, if it is a passion to explore
and understand whether mi sleading on being misled being
skeptical refers to offering the most plausible explanation thatmunotes.in

Page 35

35makes the facts. Putting Scientific attitude requires curiosity,
skepticism and humility. Humility is awareness of own vulnerability
to errors and opens to surp rises. Scientific attitude prepares a
person to think smarter .
In critical thinking assumptions are examined hidden values
are j udged and evidence is evaluated. Psychologist ask and
answer questions by scientific method. It is a self-correcting
process o f evaluating ideas with observation and analysis
Scientific Method has three important components: Theory ,
hypothesis and Operational definition of words .Theory explains
principles that organizes observation and behavior. Theory
simplifies by organizing isolated facts .A good theory produces
testable predictions called as hypothesis. They enable us to reject
or revise a theory. They specify what results would support a theory
and what results would disconfirm of our theories can bias our
observation. To check their biases psychologists, report their
research with precise operational definitions so that some studies
can be replicated.
A theory is useful if it organizes range of self report
observations Implies predictions that any one can use to check
theory or derive practical application .Theories and hypothesis can
be refined by using description method .Psychologist use
description for explaining behavior and observation .It is done in a
systematic manner through observation
The case study examines a ni n d i v i d u a li nd e p t hw i t ht h e
hope of revealing things true of himself .Intensive case studies are
sometimes revealing but no generalization can be made on the
basis of observation of one person
Naturalistic observations is a method that records behavio r
in natural settings Naturalistic observ ation does not explain
behavior . It may provide snapshots of everyday life. Researcher
does not have control over condition.
Survey method looks at many cases in less depth . A survey
asks people to report their behavior or opinion. The answers obtain
for questions depend upon the wording effect even subtle changes
in the order of wording questions can have major effects.
Random sampling in everyday thinking we tend to generalize
from the sample we observes espe cially vivid cases. But it has to
be remembered that the best cases for generalizing is from a
representative sample. It is not possible to study everyone in the
population under study; therefore representative sampl e is used for
drawing inference .munotes.in

Page 36

36Correl ation Is a statistical measure showing how things vary
together thus they tell u s how well one predicts another .The
correlation coefficient can be graphically represented by drawing
scatter plots. They are used for depicting nature of correlation.
There c an be three types of relationships that exist between two
variables :Perfect positive correlation, Zero correlation and Perfect
negative correlation .A correlation is positive if two sets of scores
rise and fall together .Correlation is negative if sets of scores relate
inverse ly one set of scores goes up and other goes down .A
correlation coefficient helps us to see world more clearly by
revealing the extent to which two things correlate .
Correlation and causation helps us to make predictions .It
just t ells us how two variables are associated. It has to
remembered that association does not prove causation correlation
indicates the possibility of cause and effect relationship but does
not prove the cause and effect relationship
Inan experiment research erisolat e cause and effect
relationship . They isolate cause and effect relationship by
manipulating factors of interest and by holding other fac tors
constant . This is often done by creating experimental and control
group .Experimental group that receives the treatment and control
group is a group that is tested under normal circumstances. An
experiment is not complete without independent and dependant
variable. Independent variable is one that varies independently to
other factors Dependant variable are th at varies depending on what
happens during the experiment. Confounding variables are variable
that can potentially influence the results of the experiment.
Statistical reasoning is used for describing the date. Data
can be discussed by using measures of central tendency and
measures of variability.
Measures of central tendency are mean, median and mode.
Mean is an average . It is inferred by exceptional scores. Mode is
50% percentile a point where 50% cases are above and below the
median
The measures o fv a r i a t i o ni st h em e a s u r et h a tt e l l sy o u
about the amount of variation in the data. How similar or diverse the
scores are. Averages derived from the scores of low variability are
more reliable than averages derived from the scores of high
variability
Range is the gap between lowest and highest score .The
more useful measure for understanding how one score deviates
from one another isstandard variation. It tells you whether scores
are packed or dispersed .The meaning of standard deviation can bemunotes.in

Page 37

37understo od with the help of normal deviation curve. It is graphic
representation of traits. Traits like height weight and intelligence fall
innormal distribution curve The observed differences are
considered as reliable when selected sample is representative in
nature , observation are le ss variable and w hen there are more
number of cases .
The difference is significant if the observed difference is not
because of chance factors The frequently asked questions about
psychology are Can laboratory experiment illustr ate everyday life,
secondly does behavior depends on one’s culture or gender
Why do psychologist study animals ?Are there ethical
guidelines for conducting research and animals ?The answer for
this question are explained at the length in the notes butitcan be
remembered that American Psychological Association gives
guidelines for protecting the welfare of human participants.
2.5QUESTIONS
1.What it intuition and explain the errors that we make while going
by gut feeling
2.Explain what is scientific attitu de
3.What are the characteristics of experimental method?
4.Why statistical reasoning is required in everyday life?
5.Write notes on
a.Scientific method
b.Case study method
c.Survey method
d.Method of correlation
e.Write notes on
f.Measures of central tendency
g.Measures of variability
h.Behavior culture and gender
i.Ethical guidelines for conducting research on humans and
animals.
2.6 REFERENCES
1)Myers, D. G. (2013 ).Psychology .10thedition; International
edition. New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint
2013
2)Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2008). Psychology. (Indian sub -
continent adaptation). New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) pvt
ltd.
munotes.in

Page 38

38Unit -3
THE BIOLOGY OF MIND -I
Unit Structure :
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Neural Communication
3.3 The Nervous System
3.4 Check your progress
3.5 Summary
3.6 Questions
3.7 References
3.0 OBJECTIVES:
After reading this unit, you will be able to understand –
Why it is important to understand the biological functioning of
our body
The structure and functions of neurons
The Central and Peripheral Nervous System
3.1 INTRODUCTION:
There is a famous saying by Descartes, a French
philosop her, that “I think, therefore I am”. But, the fact remains that
we cannot claim to exist, think or behave without our bodies. Our
entire behavior, thinking, emotion and even urges are biological
functions. We cannot laugh, love, study, aggress, compete, s tudy,
explore without our bodies. Without our genes, our brain, our
appearance, reflexes, we are nobody.
Many ancient philosophers tried to identify where exactly is
our mind in our body. Pluto rightfully mentioned mind is in the head,
that means in brai n. Aristotle on the other hand believed the mind
to be in heart. Modern science has proved that it is your brain and
not your heart that falls in love. In early 1800s, Franz Gall gave the
concept of phrenology, study of bumps on the skull. He believed
that bumps on the skull can indicate the mental abilities and
character traits of a person. However, research proved phrenology
is nothing but a gimmick and one cannot judge abilities or
personality of a person from the bumps on the skull. But it can’t be
denied that brain does have control over different aspects ofmunotes.in

Page 39

39behavior. Phrenology was beneficial because it did bring
researchers’ attention to the fact that different brain regions are
responsible for particular functions. This triggered the research to
find the link between biology and psychological events and have
discovered a strong interplay between our biology and our behavior
and mind. For instance, it has been discovered that we are each a
system composed of subsystems that are in turn composed of even
smaller subsystems. Tiny cells organize to form body organs.
These organs form large system for digestion, circulation and
information processing. These systems are part of larger system -
the individual who in turn is part of family and society. So, we ar e
biopsychosocial systems. To understand our behavior, we need to
study how these biological, social and psychological systems work
and interact.
3.2 NEURAL COMMUNICATION:
Neural communication is any type of signaling that takes
place between neurons th roughout the nervous system. So, let us
first see what are neurons and how do they transmit the
information.
3.2.1 Neuron:
Fig.3.1
The neuron (nerve cell) is the fundamental unit of the
nervous system. Neurons have many different shap es and sizes.
However, a typical neuron consists of a cell body, dendrites, an
axon and synaptic terminals. As you can see in figure 3.1 dendrites
are like fibers branching out from cell body. Dendrites are thin
structures that arise from the cell body, o ften extending for
munotes.in

Page 40

40hundreds of micrometers and branching multiple times, giving rise
to a complex "dendritic tree”. The dendrites receive information and
pass it on to cell body. On the other side of cell body, an axon
arises from the cell body at a site c alled the axon hillock a nd travels
for a long distance .S e eF i g . 3 . 2 .
Fig.3.2
Compare to dendrites, axons may be very long projecting
several feet through the body. Axons are covered in a myelin
sheath, a layer of fatty tissues that insulate sa x o n sa n dt h a t
increases the speed of impulses passed through those axons. This
is similar to electric wires used at home. They are insulated with
plastic cover so that electric impulse passing through wire does not
get lost and speed does not come down. The myelin sheath is laid
down up to the age of 25 approximately. As myelin sheath keeps
covering neurons, our neural efficiency, judgement and self -control
grows. If the myelin sheath degenerates, multiple sclerosis takes
place and the communication to m uscles slows down and
eventually loss of muscle control takes place.
Fig.3.3
munotes.in

Page 41

41Many neurons have only one axon, but this axon undergoes
extensive branching, enabling communication with many target
cells. Axon passes the message through axon terminal branches to
other neurons or to muscles or glands. Axon terminal transmit
signals to other neuron dendrites or tissues (like a radio
transmitter) So, we can say dendrites listen and axons speak. See
Fig.3.3.
When neuron’s dendrites receive informa tion from our
senses or from neighboring neurons, in the form of electrical or
chemical signals, they transmit these signals through an impulse
called the action potential, which is a brief electrical charge that
travels down its axon. Researchers measure brain activities in
milliseconds and computer activities in nanoseconds. So, even
though our brain is much more complex than a computer, it slower
than computer in executing simple responses.
An e u r o nt h a ti s at rest, that is not currently firing a neura l
impulse is actually electrically charged. The inside of the cell is
actually a semiliquid solution in which there are electrically charged
particles called ions. There is semiliquid solution surrounding the
outside of the cell also. This outside semiliqui d also contains
sodium ions. The ions inside the cell are negatively charged while
the ions outside the cell are positively charged. This difference in
charges is an electrical potential. The cell wall itself is permeable
(porous), so, some substance that is outside the cell can enter
through this porous cell wall and some substance with in the cell
can come out of the cell through this porous wall. Positively
charged sodium ions are too big to enter the cell membrane when
the cell is at rest because even though the cell membrane is
permeable, the openings are too small at resting state .When the
cell is resting, that state is called resting potential. A s the outside
ions are positively charged and ions inside the cell are negatively
charged , these opposite electrical charges attract each other. The
sodium ions cluster around the cell wall.
3.2.2 Action Potential:
When the cell receives a strong enough stimulation from
another cell (that is when dendrites of the cell get activated), the
cell membrane open s up special gates, one after the other, all
down its surface that allows the sodium ions to rush into the cell.
This causes the inside of the cell to become positive and outside of
the cell becomes negative . This electrical charge reversal starts at
the a xon hillock where axon is closest to cell body, where the first
gate opens and then proceeds down the axon in a kind of chain
reaction. This electrical charge reversal is known as action
potential because the electrical potential is now in action rather
than at rest. In other words, action potential means that the cell is
now positive inside and negative outside at the point where themunotes.in

Page 42

42gate opened. Each action potential sequence takes about one -
thousandth of a second. Depending upon the type of fiber in a
neuron, some neural impulse travels at speeds ranging from 2
miles per hour (slowest) to 270 miles per hour (fastest). After the
action potential passes, the cell membrane pumps the positive
sodium ions back outside the cell and shuts the gates one by one
until the next action potential opens the gates again. The cell
becomes negative inside and positive outside once again, restoring
the cell to its resting potential. Resting pause is also known as
refractory period. In short, we can say that when the cell is
stimulated, the first gate opens and the electrical charge at that
gate only is reversed. Then the next gate opens and charge at that
gate only is reversed. In the meantime, the first gate closes and the
charge returns to its original state, i.e., negative inside and positive
outside the cell. The action potential is the sequence of gates
opening all the way down to the length of the cell.
Fig.3.4
Each neuron is itself a miniature decision making device
performing complex calculations as it receives si gnals from
hundreds or even thousands of other neurons. Most signals are
excitatory that is like pushing a neuron’s accelerator, some are
inhibitory, that is like pressing the break. If excitatory signals minus
the inhibitory signals exceed a minimum inten sity or threshold, the
combined signals trigger an action potential. It is similar to saying,
majority wins. If excitatory signals are more than inhibitory signals
then action potential takes place. When a neuron does fire, it fires
in an all -or-none fashi on. Neurons are either firing at full strength or
not firing at all. Increasing the level of stimulation above the
threshold does not increase the neural impulse’s intensity.
However, a strong stimulus can trigger more neurons to fire and tomunotes.in

Page 43

43fire more ofte n and more quickly. But it does not affect the action
potential’s strength or speed. See Fig. 3.4.
3.2.3 How Neurons Communicate:
Now let us see how do neurons communicate with each
other and with the body. If you see fig. 3.1, you will see that at the
end point, axon has many branches that are called axon terminals.
Dendrites of receiving neuron and axon terminals of message
sending neuron don’t touch each other. The axon terminal of one
neuron is separated from the receiving neuron by a synaptic gap
/synaptic cleft which is less than a millionth of an inch wide. So how
do the neurons send message across the tiny synaptic gap.
Fig.3.5
The answer is that the tip of each axon terminal has a little
knob on it. These knobs are called synaptic knob or termi nal
buttons. The synaptic knob has a number of little saclike structures
in it that are called synaptic vesicles. These synaptic vesicles are
filled with fluid and a chemical substance called neurotransmitters.
When an action potential reaches the synaptic knob/terminal button
at the axon’s end, it triggers release of chemical messengers called
neurotransmitters. Within 1/10,000thof a second, the
neurotransmitter molecules cross the synaptic gap and bind to the
receptor sites on the receiving neuron. The d endrites of a receiving
neuron contain special little locks called receptor sites. These locks
have a special shape that allows only a particular molecule of
neurotransmitter to fit into it, just as a key fit into a lock. The
neurotransmitter unlocks tiny channels at the receiving site and
electrically charged atoms flow in, exciting or inhibiting the receiving
neuron’s readiness to fire. Then in a process called reuptake ,t h e
sending neuron reabsorbs the excess neurotransmitters. See Fig
3.5.munotes.in

Page 44

443.2.4 How Neurotransmitters influence us:
Research studies have shown that neurotransmitters
influence our hunger, thinking, depression and euphoria, addiction
and therapy and many other functions. However, right now we will
see the influence of neurotransmitters o no u rm o t i o n sa n d
emotions. Particular neurotransmitters affect specific behaviors and
emotions. However, neurotransmitter systems don’t operate in
isolation, they interact and their effects vary with the receptors that
they stimulate. For example, a neuro transmitter called
Acetylcholine plays a role in learning and memory. It is also the
messenger at every junction between motor neurons (which carry
information from the brain and spinal cord to the body) and skeletal
muscles. When ACh is released to our mu scle cell receptors, the
muscle contracts. If ACh transmission is blocked as happens during
some kinds of anesthesia, the muscle cannot contract and we are
paralyzed.
Our body releases several types of neurotransmitter
molecules similar to morphine in r esponse to pain and vigorous
exercise. These endorphins explain why people have good feeling
as “runner’s high”, the painkilling effect of acupuncture, and the
indifference to pain in some severely injured people. So,
endorphins lessen pain and boosts good mood.
3.2.5 Impact of Drugs and Other Chemicals on
Neurotransmitters:
When the brain is flooded with opiate drugs such as heroin
and morphine, the brain may stop producing its own natural
opiates. When the drug is withdrawn, the brain may then be
depriv ed of any form of opiate, causing intense discomfort. For
suppressing the body’s own neurotransmitter production, nature
charges a price. Drugs and other chemicals affect brain chemistry
at synapses, often by either exciting or inhibiting neuron’s firing.
Agonist molecules may be similar enough to a
neurotransmitter to bind its receptor and mimic its effects. Some
opiate drugs are agonists and produce a temporary “High” by
amplifying normal sensation of arousal and pleasure.
Antagonists also bind to rece ptors but their effect is instead
to block a neurotransmitter’s functioning. Botulin , a poison that can
form in improperly tinned food, causes paralysis by blocking ACh
release. Small injections of botulin -Botox -smooth wrinkles by
paralyzing the underlyi ng facial muscles. These antagonists are
enough like the natural neurotransmitters to occupy its receptor
sites and block its effects. But they are not similar enough to
stimulate the receptor. It is like having a foreign coin which is
identical to size an d shape of Indian coin that fits into wending
machine slot but won’t operate the machine. Curare, apoison thatmunotes.in

Page 45

45hunters apply to arrow’s tips occupies and blocks ACh receptor
sites on muscles, so that animal struck with arrow gets paralyzed.
3.3 THE NER VOUS SYSTEM
The essence of living is to take in information from the world
and the body’s tissues, to make decisions and to send back
information and orders to the body’s tissues. All this happens due
to our body’s nervous system. So, let us see how our n ervous
system works. The nervous system is the body’s speedy,
electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve
cells of the peripheral and central nervous system. Nerves are like
electric wires. These nerves are formed by bundles of axons and
link the CNS with the body’s sensory receptors, muscles and
glands. Our nervous is broadly divided into two parts -(see Fig.3.6&
Fig.3.7)
Fig. 3.6
3.3.1 The Central Nervous System (CNS)
It consists of the brain and spinal cord. It is the body’s
decision maker. Both the brain and the spinal cord are composed of
neurons that control the life sustaining functions as well as all
thoughts, emotions and behavior.
The Brain: The brain enables our humanity –our thinking, feeling
and acting. It consists o fa p p r o x i m a t e l y4 0b i l l i o nn e u r o n s ,e a c h
connecting with roughly 10,000 other neurons. The brain’s neurons
cluster into work groups called neural networks. Just as people
tend to network with their neighbors, similarly, neurons network with
nearby neuronsw ith which they can have short, fast connections.
Neurons that fire together wire together. For instance, learning to
play violin, speaking a foreign language, solving a math problem
takes place as feedback strengthens connections.
Fig.3.7munotes.in

Page 46

46
The Spinal Cord: It is a two-way information highway connecting
the peripheral nervous system and the brain. The inner part of
spinal cord appears to be grey while outer part appears to be white.
The inner part of spinal cord is mainly composed of cell bod ies of
neuron and outer part of spinal cord consists of axons and nerves.
The outer section of spinal cord is merely a message pipeline,
bringing messages from the body up to the brain and messages or
decisions from the brain down to the body.
There are t hree types of neurons -sensory neurons that carry
messages from the senses to spinal cord, motor neurons that carry
messages from the spinal cord to the muscles and glands and
interneurons that connect the sensory neurons to the motor
neurons and make up t he inside of the spinal cord and the brain
itself.
The Reflex: Our reflexes are our automatic responses to stimuli
and are an example of how our spinal cord works. The inner part of
spinal cord which is made up of cell bodies is actually a primitive
sort of brain. This part of the spinal cord is responsible for certain
reflexes which are very fast, lifesaving reflexes. A simple spinal
reflex pathway is composed of a single sensory neuron and a
single motor neuron and these often communicate through
intern euron. For example, knee -jerk response ,e v e nah e a d l e s s
warm body can do it.
Another such pathway enables the pain reflex. When our
finger touches a flame, neural activity (excited by the heat) travels
via sensory neuron to interneurons in our spinal cor d. These
interneurons respond by activating motor neurons leading to the
muscles in our arm. Since the simple pain reflex pathway runs
through the spinal cord and right back out, our hand jerks away
from the flame before the brain receives and responds to the
information that caused us to feel the pain. This is the reason why it
appears that our hand jerks away not by our choice but on its own.
munotes.in

Page 47

47The question comes to mind that if information travels to and
from the brain through the spinal cord, what will h appen if the top of
spinal cord is severely damaged . Then there will be no connection
between brain and spinal cord. Logically then ,w i t hy o u rb r a i n
literally out of touch with your body, you would lose all sensation
and voluntary movement in body regions with sensory and motor
connections to the spinal cord below its point of injury. The
research shows that we are capable of giving a response even
when certain brain centers are damaged. For instance,
Goldstein(2000) reported that when the brain center cont rolling the
erection is damaged, men paralyzed below the waist were capable
of having an erection( a simple reflex) when their genitals were
stimulated.
3.3.2 The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) :
It is responsible for collecting information and for trans mitting
central nervous system’s decisions to other parts of the body. The
peripheral nervous system has two parts –Somatic and autonomic
nervous system.
Somatic nervous system :
Itenables voluntary control of our skeletal muscles. It is
made up of all t he nerves carrying messages from the senses to
the CNS and all of the nerves carrying messages from the CNS to
the muscles of the body -especially the skeletal muscles, that is,
muscles connected to the bones of our body. This allows people to
move their b odies. For example, when people are walking, raising
their hands in class, smelling a flower or seeing a pretty picture,
they are using somatic nervous system.
Autonomic nervous system :
While the somatic part of the peripheral nervous system
controls th e senses and voluntary muscles, the autonomic part of
the peripheral nervous system controls everything else in the body
such as organs, the glands and the involuntary muscles of our
internal organs and influences activities such as heartbeat,
digestion an d glandular activity. Usually this system operates on its
own, that is why it is called autonomic nervous system.
Autonomic nervous system also consists of two parts -
the sympathetic nervous system and
parasympathetic nervous system.
The sympathetic ne rvous system :
It is located in the middle of the spinal cord column, running
from near the top of the ribcage to the waist area .I tarouses and
expends energy. If something alarms or challenges us (e.g. coming
across a snake) our sympathetic nervous system will increase the
heartbeat, raise our blood pressure, slow our digestion, raise bloodmunotes.in

Page 48

48sugar and cool us with perspiration. This makes us alert and ready
for action. The heart draws blood away from nonessential organs
such as skin (so at first the person may appear pale), and
sometimes draws blood from even the brain itself (sothe person
might actually faint). Blood needs lot of oxygen before it goes to the
muscles, so the lungs work overtime too (the person may begin to
breath faster). While dealing with a stressful situation, digestion of
food and elimination of waste are not necessary functions , so these
systems tend to be shut down. Saliva dries up, the urge to go to the
bathroom will be suppressed but if the person is really scared, the
bladder or bow ls may actually empty .
In fact, the sympathetic nervous system is known as “fight -
or-flight system” because it allows people and animals to deal with
all kinds of stressful events. The sympathetic division’s job is to get
the body ready to deal with the s tress. It is also said that the
sympathetic division is in sympathy with one’s emotions. These
emotions may be anger, extreme joy, or extreme excitement. Even
extreme emotions can be stressful and it deals with them.
The parasympathetic nervous system :
Itgetsactivated once the danger is over and it will produce
opposite effects. It will conserve our energy by decreasing our heart
beat, lowering blood sugar, constricts the pupils, reactivates
digestion and excretion, etc.
In everyday situations, the s ympathetic and parasympathetic
nervous systems work together to keep us in a steady internal
state. In other words, its job is to restore the body to normal
functioning after a stressful situation ends.
If the sympathetic division can be called the fight -or-flight
system, the parasympathetic division can be called “the -eat-drink -
and-rest system”. The neurons of this division are located at the
top and bottom of the spinal column or either side of the
sympathetic division of neurons. The parasympathetic d ivision does
more than just react to the activity of the sympathetic division. It is
responsible for most of the ordinary, day to day bodily functioning. It
keeps the heart beating regularly, breathing normal, and digestion
going. People spend most part of the day in eating, sleeping,
digesting and excreting. So,it is the parasympathetic division that is
normally active.
Fig 3.8munotes.in

Page 49

49
See Fig 3.8 to see the summary of difference between
sympathetic and parasympathetic divisio n.
3.4 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
Write short notes on
a.)Importance of studying human biology
b.)Structure of neuron
c.)Action potential
d.)Influence of neurotransmitters
e.)Impact of drugs and other chemicals on neurotransmitters
f.)The peripheral nervous system
g.)The central nervous system
h.)Sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system
i.)Parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system
munotes.in

Page 50

503.5 SUMMARY :
In this unit, we began with why it is necessary for us to
understand the biological part of human body. We said our
cognitive part is intertwined with our biological part. While talking
about the biological part we have concentrated on nervous system.
The smallest unit of nervous system is neuron. So we discussed
the structure and functioning of neuron . We also discussed how
communication takes place among neurons, how neurotransmitters
influence our actions, motions and emotions, and how
neurotransmitters get influenced by certain drugs and chemicals.
Then we discussed the nervous system in broader terms, where we
said t hat nervous system is divided into two parts -central nervous
system ( that consists of brain and spinal cord) and peripheral
nervous system ( that consists of nerves reaching out to each and
every part of the body. The peripheral nervous system can be
further divided into somatic and autonomic nervous system and
autonomic nervous system can be further divided into the
sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system. The
sympathetic nervous system gets activated when we are faced with
extremely stressful s ituation and it readies body to face that
challenging situation. On the other hand, the parasympathetic
division of autonomic nervous system helps us to cool down after
the stressful situation is over and it is involved in our daily activities.
3.6QUEST IONS:
1.With the help of a diagram, explain the structure and functioning
of a neuron.
2.Write a detailed note on neural communication.
3.How neurons communicate and how neurotransmitters
influence us?
4.Explain in detail action potential and how neurons communic ate.
5.What are the functions of the nervous system’s main divisions?
3.7REFERENCE:
1)Myers, D. G. (2013). Psychology .10thedition; International
edition. New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint
2013
2)Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2008). Psychology. (Indian sub -
continent adaptation). New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) pvt
ltd.
munotes.in

Page 51

51Unit -4
THE BIOLOGY OF MIND -II
Unit Structure :
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Endocrine System
4.3 The Brain -The Tools of Discovery
4.3.1 Older brain structures
4.3. 2 The cerebral cortex
4.3.3 Our divided brain; right -left differenc es in the intact
brain
4.4 Close -up-Handedness
4.5 Check your progress
4.6 Summary
4.7 Questions
4.8 References
4.0OBJECTIVES:
After reading this unit you will be able –
To understand the role of various glands in influencing our body
functions and behavior
Understand the structure of brain and functions of various parts
of brain
4.1INTRODUCTION:
In previous unit, we studied about the neurons. In present
unit, we will look at endocrine system –as e to fg l a n d st h a ta r e
interconnected with our n ervous system and play a significant role
in the growth and functioning of the body. W ehad also mentioned
before a famous saying by Descartes, a French philosopher, that “I
think, therefore I am” . We exist as vibrant, full of life human beings,
because we have a very complex organ in our body called brain.
Our brain differentiates us from other species of animal kingdom
and frees us from instincts. It is because of our brain that we are
not merely responding to the environment and merely surviving, we
are also think ing,storing memories, knowledge and we are
creating. Our brain enables us to have foresight, imagine and plan
and it is due to our brain that we are able to develop technology
that has helped us to conquer not only the other species who are
bodily much stronger to us, but also to travel beyond our planet. So,
let us see, how our endocrine system and brain functions.munotes.in

Page 52

524.2THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM:
The endocrine system is a second communication system
interconnected with our nervous system. The endocri ne system is
the collection of glands that produce hormones that regulate
metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sexual
function, reproduction, sleep, and mood, among other things.
The endocrine system is made up of the pituitary gland,
thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pineal gland,
pancreas, ovaries (in females) and testicles (in males). The
endocrine system affects almost every organ and cell in the body.
The glands secrete a form of chemical messengers that is called
horm ones. These hormones travel through the blood stream and
affect other tissues, including the brain. When hormones act on the
brain, they influence our interest in sex, food and aggression. Some
hormones are chemically identical to neurotransmitters. So we can
say that endocrine system and nervous system are close relatives.
Like relatives, they are similar to each other yet there are subtle
differences between them. For instance, in nervous system the
message travels at a fraction of a second while in endoc rine
message through bloodstream takes several seconds or more to
travel from gland to the target issue. It is similar to saying that
nervous system messages are like text messages while endocrine
messages are like posting a letter.
However, endocrine me ssages have long lasting effects than
neural messages. That is why, when we get upset, it takes time for
us to cool down. When we face any danger, the adrenal gland
which is situated on top of the kidney releases epinephrine and
norepinephrine (or what we call adrenaline and noradrenaline).
These hormones increase heart rates, blood pressure and blood
sugar, enabling us to have a surge of energy to deal with the
emergency. But when the emergency passes away, the hormones
and the feelings of excitement linge rs for some time before fading.
Another endocrine gland that is most influential is pituitary
gland. It is a pea sized gland situated in the core of the brain, where
it is controlled by an adjacent brain area -the hypothalamus. The
pituitary gland relea ses certain hormones such as growth hormone
that stimulates physical development and oxytocin hormone.
Oxytocin hormone enables uterine contractions associated with
birthing, milk flow during nursing and organism. Oxytocin also
promotes pair bonding, group cohesion and social trust. In an
experiment, it was found that those who were given a nasal spray
of oxytocin were more likely to trust strangers with their money than
those who were not given spray of this hormone (Kosfeld et.al.,
2005)munotes.in

Page 53

53Pituitary secret ions also influence the release of hormones
by other endocrine glands. Thus, we can say, pituitary gland is like
a master gland which is controlled by hypothalamus. For example,
a stressful event triggers hypothalamus, hypothalamus instructs
pituitary glan d to release a hormone that causes adrenal glands to
release cortisol, a stress hormone that increases blood sugar.
Fig.4.1
Figure 4.1 reveals the intimate connection of the nervous and
endocrine systems.
The Pineal gland: The Pineal gland is also lo cated in the brain,
nearer to the back. It secretes melatonin hormone that controls
circadian rhythm, induction of drowsiness and lowering of the core
body temperature. In other words, it regulates the sleep -wake
cycle.
The Thyroid Gland :The thyroid glan di sab u t t e r f l y -shaped gland
located at the base of the neck. It releases hormones to regulate
metabolic rate of our body by stimulating body oxygen and energy
consumption. It also plays a role in bone growth and development
of the brain and nervous syst em in children. Thyroid hormones also
help maintain normal blood pressure, heart rate, digestion, muscle
tone, and reproductive functions.
Parathyroid Gland: It regulates calcium levels in the blood and
bone metabolism.
Pancreas : The pancreas has diges tive and hormonal functions.
One part of the pancreas, the exocrine pancreas, secretes
digestive enzymes. The other part of the pancreas, the endocrine
pancreas, secretes hormones called insulin and glucagon. These
hormones regulate the level of glucose in the blood.
4.3 THE BRAIN -THE TOOLS OF DISCOVERY:
In ancient times, scientists had no tools to study a living
human brain. They used to dissect the brains of dead humans and
animals to understand how brain worked. But it was impossible to
tell the fu nctioning of various parts of brain from the dead brain.
Early clinical observations by doctors and psychologists
revealed that there is some connection between brain and mind.
For example, it was found that damage to one side of the brain
often caused n umbness or paralysis on the body’s opposite side.munotes.in

Page 54

54This suggested that body’s right side is wired to the left side of the
brain and left side of the body is wired to right side of the brain. It
was also observed that our vision or ability to see clearly was
impacted with the damage to the back portion of the brain and a
person will have speech difficulties if the left -front part of the brain
is damaged.
However, now many new techniques have been developed
to study living brain. Some of them are –
Deep Le sioning andElectrical Stimulation :
One way to study the functioning of various areas of the
brain is by damaging those areas selectively and deliberately, and
then studying its impact on animal sor human s’a b i l i t i e s .Another
way is that instead of destr oying the part of brain, scientists may
just stimulate electrically some particular area of the brain and
watch the results. Both destroying and stimulation of specific areas
of brain is done by same method. A thin wire insulated everywhere
except the very tip is surgically inserted into the brain of the test
animal. If brain tissue is to be destroyed then a strong electric
current is passed through the tip of the wire to destroy the neurons.
This is called deep lesioning. We obviously need to do studies
using this method only with animals for ethical reasons.
In the laboratory, studies have shown that damage to one
area of hypothalamus in a rat’s brain reduces eating to the point of
starvation, whereas damage to another area of brain produces
overeating.
If researchers want to only stimulate a particular area of the
brain, then a mild current is passed through the tip of the wire,
causing the neuron to react as if they have received a message.
This is called electrical stimulation of the brain. Now days,
neuroscientists can also chemically or magnetically stimulate parts
of brain.
Laboratory studies using this stimulation method have
shown that depending on the stimulated part of the brain people
may giggle, hear voices, turn their head, feel themselves falling or
they may have out –of-body experience.
Scientists, now days can also study the messages of
individual neurons. For example, modern microelectrodes (very
small tip of the wire) can detect , exactly where the information goes
in a cat’s brain when someone strokes its whiskers. Researchers
can also listen the chatter of billions of neurons and can see color
representations of the brain’s energy consuming activity.munotes.in

Page 55

55The EEG:
Our mental activities emit electrical, metabolic and magnetic
signals that help scientists to study the brain at work. This is a very
safe way to study the activity of the living brain. E lectrical activity in
the brain’s billions of neurons creates regular waves across its
surface. Scientists study these electrical activiti es by using a
method called electroencephalogram ( EEG ).EEG is an amplified
read -out of these electrical waves. Researchers record the brain
waves through a shower cap like hat that is filled with electrodes
that are covered with a conducting gel. Electrod es are small metal
disks that are placed directly on the skin of the skull. These
microelectrodes are attached to wires and the wires are attached to
pens that rest on the moving graph paper. These microelectrodes
can detect electrical activity which cause s pens to move and create
short irregular curvy lines or waves that indicate many things, such
as stages of sleep, seizures, presence of tumors, etc. The EEG can
also be used to identify which areas of the brain are active during
tasks such as reading, wri ting, and speaking.
PET (Positron emission tomography):
PET is a neuroimaging technique that allows us to see inside
the living brain. It shows the picture of brain activity by showing
each brain area’s consumption of its chemical fuel, the sugar
glucos e. The person, whose brain the scientist wants to study, is
injected with a radioactive glucose. The computer detects the
activity of the brain cells by looking at which cells are using up the
radioactive glucose and projecting the image of that activity o nto a
monitor. Active neurons are glucose hogs and after a person
receives temporarily radioactive glucose, the PET scan can track
the gamma rays released by this “food for thought” as the person
performs the given task. The computer uses colors to indicat e
different levels of activity. Areas that are very active usually show
up as white or very light and the areas that are inactive show up as
dark blue. With this method, researchers can actually have the
person perform different tasks while the computer sh ows what his
brain is doing during the task. PET scan can show which brain
areas are most active when the person is doing mathematics
calculations, looks at images of faces, or daydreams.
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging):
The person’s head is put in a strong magnetic field, which
aligns the spinning atoms of brain molecules . Then a radio wave
pulse momentarily disorients the atoms. When the atoms return to
their normal spin, they give out signals that provide a detailed
picture of soft tissues, includ ing the brain.
Since many images are taken milliseconds apart, it shows
how the brain responds to different stimuli, enabling researchers to
study both the functional and structural brain abnormalities inmunotes.in

Page 56

56psychological disorders . MRI scans have revealed al a r g e rt h a n
average neural area in the left hemisphere of musicians who
display perfect pitch. They have also revealed enlarged ventricles,
that is fluid filled areas, in some patients of schizophrenia.
fMRI (Functional MRI):
fMRI can reveal the brain’ s functioning and its structure.
Blood goes to the parts of brain that are active. By comparing MRI
scans taken less than a second apart, researchers can watch as
specific brain areas are activated and oxygen -laden bloodflow
increases .For example, when a person looks at a picture, the fMRI
machine detects blood rushing to the back of the brain because
that area processes visual information. Such pictures of the brain’s
changing activity give us a new insight into how brain divides its
work. For instance, a fMRI study suggested which part of the brain
is most active when people feel pain or rejection, listen to angry
voices, think about scary things, feel happy or become sexually
excited. In another study, 129 people were given eight different
tasks to perfo rm such as reading, gambling or rhyming and their
brains were studied through fMRI. It was found that neuroscientists
were able to predict with 80% accuracy what mental activity was
being done by the participant.
All these techniques to study brain have helped
psychologists in the same way as microscope helped the biology
and telescope helped in astronomy.
4.3.1 Older Brain Structures:
The capacities of human beings and animals come from
their brain structures. In primitive animals, brain structure i sv e r y
simple and regulates basic survival functions. In lower mammals, a
more complex brain structure enables emotions and greater
memory apart from survival functions. In advanced mammals such
as human beings, a more advanced brain structure processes mo re
information and enables increased foresight apart from all other
functions performed by less advanced brain structures.
The increased complexity of human’s brain comes from new
brain system that is built on top of the old brain system. Just as in
case of earth, if we dig deeper, we can see the original rocks on
which new landscapes have come up, similarly, if we dig deep
down, we can see t he fossil remnants of the past that is brain stem
components performing the same tasks that they did for our
ancestor s.
So, let us start with the base of the brain and then study the
top portion of the brain or the newer systems of the brain.munotes.in

Page 57

57The Brainstem :
The brain stem is the oldest and innermost part of the brain.
The brainstem consists of the medulla oblongata, pons ,a n d
midbrain .
The medulla oblongata :The medulla oblongata is the lower half of
the brainstem continuous with the spinal cord. Its upper part is
continuous with the pons. It begins where the spinal cord swells
slightly after entering the skull. This slight swelling is called
medulla. (See Fi g. 4.2) The medulla contains the cardiac ,
respiratory ,vomiting andvasomotor centres dealing with heart rate ,
breathing and blood pressure .W ed o n ’ tn e e dh i g h e rb r a i no r
conscious mind to regulate our heart’s rate and breathing. The
brainstem takes care of those t asks. It is in the medulla that the
nerves coming from and going to the left and right side of the body
cross over, so that the left side of the brain controls the right side of
the body and vice versa.
Fig.4.2
The Pons:The P onslies between the medulla oblongata and the
midbrain. The p ons is the larger swelling just above the
medulla .The term pons in Latin means bridge and the pons is
actually a bridge between the low er and upper part of the brain.It
influences sleep and dreaming, helps in c oordinating the
movements of right and left sides of the body and arousal.
The midbrain :The midbrain is a small region of the brain that
serves as a relay center for visual, auditory, and motor system
information. It is front part of the brainstem, and any disruption to
this area can cause irreversible damage and impairment. Illnesses
most commonly associated with this region of the brain are stroke,
schizophrenia, and Parkinson's disease.
The Thalamus :
Just above the brain stem is the thalamus. It is a pair of egg
shaped structures. The thalamus receives information from all the
senses except smell and relays this information to the higher brain
regions which deal with seeing, hearing, tasting and touching,
munotes.in

Page 58

58where it can be processed. If this part of th eb r a i ni sd a m a g e d ,a l l
sensory information would not be processed and sensory confusion
will take place.
The Reticular Formation:
Inside the brainstem, between your ears, the reticular
formation extends through the central core of the medulla, pons,
and stops in the midbrain. It is an intricate system composed of
finger shaped network of neurons that extends from the spinal cord
through thalamus.(See Fig. 4.3) It regulates arousal, attention,
sleep and awaking cycle. It filters incoming stimuli to discri minate
irrelevant background stimuli. Basically, it allows people to ignore
constant unchanging information (such as the noise of a fan) and
become alert to changes in the information (for example, if the
noise of the fan stops).
Fig.4.3
It is essential for governing some of the basic functions of
higher organisms and is one of the oldest part of the brain. Damage
to the reticular formation can lead to coma or death. In less severe
cases, a damaged reticular formation can cause fatigue, changes in
sexual arousal and disrupted sleep patterns.
munotes.in

Page 59

59The cerebellum :
Fig.4.4
Cerebellum is placed at the base of the skull just behind the
pons and below the main part of the brain. It looks like a small
brain. Cerebellum mea ns little brain. The cerebellum is part of the
lower brain. The cerebellum is not unique to humans. Evolutionarily
speaking, it is an older portion of the brain. It is present in animals
that scientists believe existed before humans. The cerebellum
makes u p approximately 10% of the brain’s total size but it
accounts for more than 50% of the total number of neurons located
in the entire brain. In adults, it weighs around 150 gm.
Functions of Cerebellum: It helps -
to judge time, modulate our emotions and
to discriminate sounds and textures.
to coordinates voluntary movements (especially those
movements that have to happen in rapid succession such as
walking, diving, skating, dancing, typing, playing musical
instrument and even the movement of speech) –Itcontrols the
timing and pattern of muscle activation during movement.
To m aintain balance and equilibrium -people can sit upright
because the cerebellum controls all the little muscles needed to
keep them from falling out of their chair. Because of cerebell um,
people don’t have to consciously think about their posture,
muscle tone and balance.
It enables nonverbal learning and memory.
Learned reflexes, skills and habits are also stored here which
allows them to become more or less automatic.
It also contr ibutes to emotional responses.
munotes.in

Page 60

60If a person’s cerebellum is damaged, he will have difficulty in
walking, standing, keeping his balance or shaking hands. He can’t
even get a spoon to his mouth. The movements will be jerky and
exaggerated. He won’t be able to dance or play any musical
instruments such as guitar. Alcohol influences cerebellum and that
is why a drunk person cannot walk properly, or drive properly.
People with damaged cerebellum may also suffer from tremors ,
cannot judge distance and when to st op, are unable to perform
rapid alternating movements. They have slurred speech and
abnormal eye movements.
The Limbic System :
Brain stem is the oldest part of the brain and the cerebral
hemisphere is the highest and newest region of the brain. Between
the oldest and newest brain areas lies the limbic system. It derives
its name from a Latin word Limbus which means border. In this
case, forming a border around the brain stem. The Limbic system
contains three parts –the amygdala, the hypothalamus, and the
hippocampus. (See Fig.4.4)
TheAmygdala:
Amygdale is almond shaped mass of nuclei located near the
hippocampus. It is involved in emotional responses, hormonal
secretions, and episodic -autobiographical memory .Research has
linked amygdala to aggression a nd fear. Information from the
senses goes to the amygdala before the upper part of the brain is
even involved, so that people can respond to danger quickly,
sometimes before they are consciously aware of what is
happening.
Research has shown that d amage to amygdala causes loss
of the aggressive behavior, and fear (Kluver & Bucy 1939). Another
research showed that electrical stimulation of one part of an
amygdala makes a docile pet cat aggressive while electrical
stimulation of another part of amygdala ma kes it fearful.
The Hypothalamus :
The hypothalamus is a very small (size of an almond) but
very powerful part of the brain that is located just below the
thalamus and is part of the limbic system .‘Hypo’ means ‘just
below’, since it is just below thethalamus ,it is called hypothalamus.
It links the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary
gland. It sits right above the pituitary gland and controls the pituitary
gland by either stimulating or inhibiting the secretion of pituitary
hormone s. Pituitary gland is called ‘master gland’ because it
controls the functions of all other endocrine glands, so the ultimate
regulation of hormones lies with the hypothalamus.munotes.in

Page 61

61Functions of the hypothalamus: Itregulates –
Body temperature,
Thirst,
Hung er and weight control,
Fatigue,
Sleep cycles
Sexual activity ,
Emotions ,
Important aspects of parenting and attachmentbehaviors .
Childbirth
Blood pressure and heart rate
Production of digestive juices
Balancing bodily fluids
As signals are sent to the br ain from different areas of the
body, they let the hypothalamus know if balance is not being
achieved. The hypothalamus then responds by releasing the right
hormones into the bloodstream to balance the body back out.
One example of this is the body's abi lity to maintain an
internal temperature of 98.6°F. If the hypothalamus receives the
signal that the body's internal temperature is too hot, it will tell the
body to sweat. If it receives the signal that the temperature is too
cold, the body will create it s own heat by shivering.
Olds and Milner (1954 ) accidently made a remarkable
discovery about the hypothalamus. They were trying to implant an
electrode in a rat’s reticular formation but inadvertently placed it in
hypothalamus. They observed that the rat kept returning to the
location where it had been stimulated by this misplaced electrode.
Thus, they discovered a brain center that gives pleasure rewards.
In a series of experiments later on, they went on to discover other
‘pleasure centers’ in hypothalam us. Other scientists called these
pleasure centers as reward centers. It was observed that when rats
with implanted electrodes were allowed to press pedals to trigger
their own stimulation in these areas, rats kept pressing the pedals
at a very high speed –sometimes up to 7000 times an hour –till
they dropped from fatigue. Not only that, to get this stimulation, they
would even cross an electrified floor, that normally a starving rat
would not do to reach food.
In fact, research with animals have shown that both a
general dopamine related reward system and specific centers
associated with pleasures of eating, drinking and sex are activated
by the stimulation of different parts of hypothalamus. The question
arises can we generalize this research to human beings also? The
answer is yes. Research has shown that human beings also have
limbic centers for pleasure. In one study, a neurosurgeon implantedmunotes.in

Page 62

62an electrode in such areas to calm a violent patient. Stimulated
patient reported mild pleasure, though he d id not show the same
intensity as the stimulated rat showed in Old’s experiment. Other
experiments have shown the effects of a dopamine related reward
system also.
Researchers believe that addictive disorders such as
alcoholism, drug abuse, binge eating may be originating from
malfunctioning in natural brain systems for pleasure and wellbeing.
People who are genetically predisposed to reward deficiency
syndrome may crave for whatever gives that missing pleasure or
relieves negative feelings.
The Hippoc ampus:
The hippocampus is the Greek word for “seashore” .T h e
hippocampus looks like seashore. The hippocampus plays an
important role in the consolidation of information from short term
memory to long term memory and in spatial memory that enables
navigat ion. It processes conscious memories and converts them in
long term memory .Animals or humans who lose their hippocampus
due to surgery or injury, lose their ability to form new memories
(recent memory) of facts or events. Elderly people who develop
memory problems associated with deterioration of the hippocampus
tend to forget where they live, where they kept their keys, and
similar location problems.
4.3.2 The cerebral cortex :
If we open up the skull of a human being and look inside, the
brain looks lik e a wrinkled organ, almost resembling the meat of an
oversized walnut. This wrinkled portion that you are seeing is
cerebral cortex . Underneath cerebral cortex is the cerebrum. The
cerebrum is the largest part of the brain, forming 85% of its weight.
The cerebrum consists of two cerebral hemispheres joined by a
curved thick band of nerve fibers called corpus callosum. The
cerebral cortex is a thin surface layer that covers two hemispheres
of cerebrum just like the bark covers a tree trunk. This thin layer i s
made up of interconnected neural cells. It is formed of grey and
white matter. The two hemispheres are filled with axons connecting
the cortex to the brain’s other regions. The cerebral cortex –the
thin layer contains 20 to 23 billion nerve cells and 3 00 trillion
synaptic connections.
These billions of nerve cells are supported by glial cells (glue
cells). Glial cells are the non -excitable supporting cells of the
nervous system. These glial cells are nine times more than neurons
and look like spiders. They support the neurons and are involved in
the nutrition and maintenance of nerve cells. One can say, neurons
are like queen bee while glial cells are like worker bees. (See Fig.
4.5)munotes.in

Page 63

63Fig.4.5
Apart from providing nutrition, they give ins ulating myelin,
guide neural connections and mop up ions and neurotransmitters.
Because of their non -conducting nature, the glial cells act as
insulators between the neurons and prevent neuronal impulses
from spreading in unwanted directions. They also pla yap a r ti no u r
learning and thinking. By “chatting” with neurons, they participate in
information transmission and memory. Although glia cells DO NOT
carry nerve impulses (action potentials) they do have many
important functions. In fact, without glia, th en e u r o n sw o u l dn o t
work properly.
In complex animal brains, the number of glia cells compared
to neurons increases. After Einstein’s death, scientists carried out a
postmortem of his brain and found that though he did not have
more or larger than usual n eurons but he had more than average
concentration of glial cells.
The cerebral cortex is highly wrinkled. Essentially this makes
the brain more efficient, because it can increase the surface area of
the brain and the number of neurons within it. Animals like frog that
have small cortex do not have too many wrinkles in their cerebral
cortex. As we move up the ladder of animal life, the cerebral cortex
expands and becomes more wrinkled. As the cerebral cortex
expands, an organisms’ adaptability increases a nd genetic control
loosens. Since human beings and other mammals have larger
cortex, their capacity for learning, thinking adaptability is higher. It is
the complex functioning of our cerebral cortex that makes us
distinctly human. Over time, the human cor tex undergoes a process
ofcorticalization , or wrinkling of the cortex. This process is due to
the vast knowledge that the human brain accumulates over time.
Therefore, the more wrinkly your brain, the smarter and more
intelligent you are.
munotes.in

Page 64

64Fig.4.6 Fig.4.7
Each hemisphere’s cortex is subdivided into four lobes
separated by prominent fissures or folds (see Fig. 4.6). These lobes
are frontal, occipital, parietal and temporal lobes. The frontal lobes
start from the front of the brain and moves upto the top of the brain.
Frontal lobes are behind the forehead. The parietal lobes are at the
middle section of the brain. The occipital lobes are at the back of
the head and temporal lobes are just above the ears. (see
approximate locations of lobes in Fig. 4.7) Each of the four lobes
carry out many functions and many functions require interplay of
several lobes. For instance, the frontal lobe is associated with
reasoning, motor skills , higher level cognition, and expressive
language. The parietal lobe is associated with processing tactile
sensory information such as pressure, touch, and pain. Damage to
the temporal lobe can lead to problems with memory, speech
perception, and language skills. The occipital lobe is associated
with interpreting visual stimuli and information. Damage to this lobe
can cause visual problems such as difficulty recognizing objects, an
inability to identify colors, and trouble recognizing words.
Motor Cortex:
Motor Functions: In 1870 physicians Gustav Theodor Fritsch
and Eduard Hitzig, using awake dogs as their subjects, electric ally
stimulated the area of the brain we now know as the motor cortex
and found that the stimulation caused the dogs to move
involuntarily. Additionally, they found that stimulating the motor
cortex in different locations caused different muscles to move. This
experiment led to the identification of the motor cortex as the
primary area of our brain involved with planning , controlling and
executing voluntary movements. Signals sent to your muscles all
originate in the motor cortex region. The motor cortex r egion is
responsible for all voluntary muscle movements, like taking a drink
of water or getting yourself out of bed in the morning. Scientists
found that body areas that require precise control such as fingers
and mouth occupy the greatest amount of corti cal space . A Spanish
neuroscientist Jose Delgado stimulated a spot on a patient’s left
motor cortex , triggering the right hand to make a fist. When hemunotes.in

Page 65

65asked the patient to keep his fingers open during the next
stimulation, the patient’s fingers closed desp ite his best efforts. This
indicated that motor cortex has control over involuntary movements
also. In another experiment Gibbs (1996) could predict a monkey’s
arm motion a 10thof a second before it moved, by repeatedly
measuring motor cortex activity bef ore specific arm movement. This
indicated that motor cortex is also involved in intention and
planningthe movements. Such type of research studies have
compelled scientists to look at brain computer interface. Initial
studies done with monkeys on brain con trolled computers have
been successful. Brain controlled computers can be a boon for
people who have suffered paralysis or amputation and cannot
speak or move. In one of such research study, a paralyzed young
man could mentally control a TV, draw shapes on a computer
screen and play video games (Hochberg et.al. 2006).
Sensory Funtion:
The cortical area at the front of the parietal lobes, parallel to
and just behind the motor cortex is called the sensory cortex. If we
stimulate a point on the top of this b and of tissue, the person may
report being touched on the shoulder and if you stimulate some
point on the side of this band of tissue, the person may feel
something on the face. Visual information from eyes is received in
the visual cortex in occipital lobe s, at the back of the brain. If you
are hit hard at the back of your head, you may go blind. If that area
is stimulated, you may see flashes of light or dashes of color. (See
Fig.4.8 & 4.9)The auditory cortex is situated in temporal lobes just
above the ea rs and receives information from the ears. Most of this
auditory information travels a circuitous route from one ear to the
auditory receiving area above opposite ear.
Fig. 4.8 Fig. 4.9
The amount of cortex devoted to a particular body part is
directly proportional to that part’s sensitivity. For instance, our
supersensitive lips project to a larger cortex area than do our toes.
Association Areas:
Association areas are m ade up of neurons in the cortex that
are devoted to making connections between the sensorymunotes.in

Page 66

66information received in the brain and stored memories, images and
knowledge. Association areas give meaning to sensory information
coming in the brain. It means that these areas interpret, integrate
and act on sensory information and link it to stored memories –a
significant part of thinking. Unlike the sensory and motor areas,
association area functions cannot be neatly mapped .Association
areas take up an increasing ly larger percentage of the cerebral
cortex as brain size increases among different species.
Association areas are found in all four lobes. In the frontal
lobes, they enable judgment , planning, and processing of new
memories. Higher order association cor tex carries out complex
mental processes not associated with any particular sense. These
highest mental processes, like language, thinking, and planning, do
not depend on specific sensory information. Memory, language,
attention and religious experience resu lt from the synchronized
activity among distinct brain areas. More than 40 distinct brain
regions become active in different religious states, such as praying
and meditating. So our mental experiences arise from coordinated
brain activity.
People with d amaged frontal lobes may have intact
memories, high score on intelligence tests and good skills ,but they
would not be able to plan ahead to begin the skilled task .
Damage to frontal lobe can also change the personality of a
person and remove his inhibit ions. For example, the case of a
railroad worker Phineas Gage. In 1848, he met with an accident,
where an iron rod went through his left cheek and came out of the
top of his skull. This severely damaged his frontal lobes. He was
immediately able to sit and speak and later on return to his work.
But he was no more friendly, soft spoken person. After this
accident, he became irritable, disrespectful and dishonest person.
His mental abilities and memories were intact but his personality
had changed.
Similar results have been reported by other studies of
damaged frontal lobes. People with damaged frontal lobes become
less inhibited, impulsive and their moral judgments are not
restrained by normal emotions. Their moral compass gets
disconnected from their beha vior.
Parts of association areas in the parietal lobes in Einstein’s
brain were large and unusally shaped.They are responsible for
mathematical and spatial reasoning. Another association area, on
the underside of the right temporal lobe, enables us to re cognize
faces. If this area is destroyed due to injury or stroke, a person
would be able to describe facial features and recognize gender and
age of the other person but will be unable to identify the person.munotes.in

Page 67

67The Brain’s Plasticity:
The brain plasticit yr e f e r st ot h eb r a i n ’ sa b i l i t yt oC H A N G E
throughout life. In addition to genetic factors, the environment in
which a person lives, as well as the actions of that person, play a
significant role in plasticity.
Brain plasticity occurs in the brain:
1-Atthe beginning of life: when the immature brain organizes
itself.
2-In case of brain injury: to compensate for lost functions or
maximize remaining functions.
3-Through adulthood: whenever something new is learned and
memorized
Plasticity and brain injur y:
When brain gets damaged, two things happen –
1.Damaged neurons usually do not regerate. If you get a cut on
your skin, your skin cells regenerate and your wound gets
healed, but that does not happen with neurons. If your spinal
cord is severed, you would be paralyzed permanently.
2.Since brain functions seem to be preassigned to specific areas,
if a newborn suffers damage to temporal lobe facial recognition
areas, later on he will be unable to recognize faces.
However, there is a silver lining to this gloo my picture. Some
neural tissues can reogarnize in response to damage. As
mentioned above, the brain is constantly changing, building new
pathways as it adjusts to minor mishaps and new experiences. In
young children, palsticity can occur even after serious damage. But
in order to reconnect, the neurons need to be stimulated through
activity.
Constraint -Induced Therapy:
This therapy can be used to rewire the brain and improve the
dexterity of a brain damaged child or adult stroke victim. In this
therapy, therapists force patients to not to use their fully functioning
limb and to use “bad” hand or leg. This gradually reprograms the
brain. For example, a 50 year old surgeon had suffered a stroke.
His left arm was paralyzed. During his rehabilitation, his go od arm
and hand were immobilized and he was asked to clean tables. At
first, the task appeared to be impossible. Then slowly the bad arm
remembered how to move. He learnt to write again, to play tennis
again. The functions of the brain areas killed in the stroke were
transferred themselves to healthy regions. (Doidge,2007).
Research has shown that blindness and deafness makes
unused brain areas available for other uses. If a blind person uses
one finger to read Braille, the brain area dedicated to that fin ger
expands as the sense of touch invades the visual cortex thatmunotes.in

Page 68

68normally helps people to see. Plasticity also explains why deaf
people have enhanced peripheral vision. In those people whose
native language is sign language only, the temporal area which is
normally dedicated to hearing does not get any stimulation and
finally it looks for other signals to process and starts processing
signals from visual system.
Similarly, if a tumor in left hemisphere disrupts language, the
right side hemisphere compensa tes. If a finger is amputated,the
sensory cortex that was receiving input from this finger will start
receiving input from the adjacent fingers, which then become more
sensitive.
Neurogenesis:
Though brain tries to repair itself by reorganizing existing
tissues, sometimes it tries to repair itself by generating new brain
cells. This process is known as neurogenesis. It was long
considered that the number of neurons was fixed and they did not
replicate after maturity of the brain. But in 1990s, scientists
discovered the process of neurogenesis in the brains of humans
and some other animals such as rats, birds, monkeys. These baby
neurons originate deep in the brain and then migrate to other parts
of the brain to form connections with neighboring neurons. Master
stem cells that can develop into any type of brain cell have been
found in the human embryo. When stem cells from the brain are
isolated and grown in a dish, they continuously divide and create
large spherical masses of cells. If these cells are inj ected into a
damaged brain, neural stem cells turn themselves into replacement
for lost brain cells. This research gives hope for brain damaged
people. However, there are number of behavioral, environmental,
pharmacological and biochemical factors that aff ect this process.
For example, exercise, sleep, nonstressful but stimulating
environments, diet, etc. are natural promoters of neurogenesis.
Studies have shown that Cardiovascular exercise such as running,
interval training, cross fit and yoga are the sing le most effective
ways of boosting neurogenesis. Diet plays an important role in
brain health and neurogenesis. Excess refined sugar ,r e f i n e da n d
processed foods havea detrimental effect on the brain and should
be avoided .Blueberries ,green tea , spices a nd turmeric are
supportive of neurogenesis. Meditation has been found to increase
grey matter density in a number of different brain reg ions, including
the hippocampus and is beneficial for neurogenesis.
4.3.3 Our divided brain; right -left differences in the intact brain
Split Brain:
As we have seen in above discussion, our brain has two
same looking hemispheres –left and right hemisphere that serve
different functions. These two hemispheres are joined together amunotes.in

Page 69

69large band of neural fibers called corpu s callosum. The corpus
callosum carries the messages between the two hemispheres. In
one research case, doctors removed this corpus callosum of a
patient suffering from major epileptic seizures. The result of this
operation was that seizures stopped and in spite of having split
brain, there was no change in the personality intellect of the person
with split brain.
Many more experiments were conducted to see the effect of
cutting corpus callous. For instance, it has been found that -
a.)When split-brain pa tients are shown an image only in their left
visual field (the left half of what both eyes take in, they cannot
vocally name what they have seen. This can be explained in
three steps: (1) The image seen in the left visual field is sent
only to the right si de of the brain; (2) For most people, the
speech -control center is on the left side of the brain; and (3)
Communication between the two sides of the brain is inhibited.
Thus, the patient cannot say out loud the name of that which the
right side of the brai n is seeing.
b.)If a split -brain patient is touching a mysterious object with only
the left hand, while also receiving no visual cues in the right
visual field, the patient cannot say out loud the name of that
which the right side of the brain is perceiving. This can be
explained in three steps: (1) Each cerebral hemisphere contains
only a tactile (connected with the sense of touch) representation
of the opposite side of the body; (2) For most humans, the
speech -control center is on the left side of the brain ;a n d( 3 )
Communication between the two sides of the brain is inhibited.
In the case that the speech -control center is on the right side of
the brain, the object must now be touched only with the right
hand to achieve the same effect.
c.)Gazzaniga and Sperr y's split -brain research is now legendary.
They reported that in patients with split -brain syndrome the right
hemisphere, which controls the left hand and foot, acts
independently of the left hemisphere and the person’s ability to
make rational decisions. This can give rise to a kind of split
personality , in which the left hemisphere give orders that reflect
the person’s rational goals , whereas the right hemisphere
issues conflicting demands that reveal hidden desires. A few
people who had undergone split -brain surgery experienced the
unruly independenc e of their left and right hemisphere. So,
while a patient’s left hand unbuttoned his shirt, his right hand
buttoned it. In another case, a patient’s right hand picked up an
item from the shelf and put it in the shopping basket while his
left hand put that item back on the shelf. Sperry (1964) said,munotes.in

Page 70

70split brain surgery leaves people with two separate minds. Both
hemispheres can understand and follow an instruction
simultaneously to copy different figures with the left and right
hand.
d.)Gazzaniga’s research found that the right hemisphere of the
brain is poor at making inferences. On the other side, the
developed human left hemisphere excels at inferences,
constantly searching for patterns that can “make sense” of what
is going on, bringing order out of chaos , and giving us answers
to “why?” questions by discovering causes behind phenomena.
Gazzaniga (1988) reported that when two minds are in conflict,
the left hemisphere does mental gymnastics to rationalize
reactions that it does not understand. For instance ,i fap a t i e n t
follows an order sent to the right hemisphere (“walk”). Unaware
of the order, the left hemisphere does not know why the patient
began walking. Yet, when asked why was he walking, instead of
saying “I don’t know”, due to interpretive left hem isphere, the
patient improvised and said, “I am going into the house to get a
Coke”. This indicates that conscious left hemisphere is an
interpreter that instantly constructs theories to explain our
behavior.
Right -Left Differences in theIntact Brain:
Myers points out that research with people with split brains
and people with intact brains shows that we have unified brains
with specialized parts.Thus, if we observe the two hemispheres
without optical aids (with the naked eye), they may seem to be the
same; however, their differential functioning combines to produce
an integrated unit (the harmony of the whole) .People with intact
brain also show left -right hemisphere diffe rences in mental abilities.
The left hemisphere :Itis more responsible for lang uage than the
right hemisphere. If you inject a sedative into the left hemisphere,
you will lose the ability to speak. This is also the case for those who
rely on sign language. Just as hearing people use the left
hemisphere to process speech, deaf people use the left
hemisphere to process sign language. If left hemisphere is
damaged, it will disrupt a deaf person’s signing just as it would
disrupt a hearing person’s speaking.
The left hemisphere is better with literal interpretations of
language, e.g., when primed with the word foot, the left hemisphere
is more likely to recognize the connected word, heel.
The right hemisphere :Itis better at making inferences, for
example, when primed with the words foot, cry and glass, the right
hemisphere is more li kely to recognize "cut" as the associated
word. Rights hemisphere helps -munotes.in

Page 71

71a.)create our sense of self
b.)helps us to modulate our speech to make meaning clear
People with damage to this region might:
a.)Insist they can move a limb that is paralyzed
b.)Have a hard t ime determining someone’s relationship to
themselves, e.g. ,Aman who thought medical professionals
were his family members
c.)Might not recognize themselves in mirror
d.)Might assign ownership of a limb to someone else ,e . g . ,“That’s
myhusband’s arm”
In sh ort, we can compare left hemisphere with right hemisphere
by saying t hatin anormal individual
Left Brain people:
1.Right brain is engaged while completing a perceptual task and
left brain is involved when carrying out a linguistic task.
2.Left brain indivi duals are rational, respond to verbal instructions,
process information in a controlled, systematic ,linear manner.
They solve p roblem logically and sequentially looki ng at the
parts of things ,makes objective judgments .
3.Left brain persons are list makers. They enjoy making a master
schedule and doing daily planning. They have no trouble
processing symbols, memorizing vocabulary words and math
formulas.
4.Analytic reader
5.Primary reliance on language in thinking and remembering
6.Prefers talking and writing
7.Prefers multiple choice test
8.Controls feelings
9.Prefers hierarchical authority structures
10.Talks, and talks, and talks
11.Sees cause and effect
12.Draws on previously accumulated, organized information
Right Brain People :
1.Right brain people process from a whole to a part, holistically.
They havedifficulty in following a lecture unless they are given
the big picture first.
2.They are color sensitive. They t ry using colors to establish
sequences.munotes.in

Page 72

723.They are concrete. They want to see, feel, or touch the real
object. Right brain individuals need to back up everything
visually. They Responds to demonstrated instructions.
4.They may have trouble learning to read using phonics. They may
know what they mean but often have trouble finding the right
words.
5.They prefer to see wo rds in context and to see how formulas
work. They learn better with hands on activities .
6.They are intuitive .They may know the right answer to a
problem, but are not sure how they got it.On a quiz, they have a
gut feeling as to which answers are correct, and they are usually
right. They solve problems with hunches, looking for patterns
and they make subjective judgments .
7.The right side of the brain pays attention to coherence and
meaning, tells you if it “feels” right.
8.When giving directions, they use th eir hands and give names of
places along the way .
4.4 CLOSE -UP-HANDEDNESS
Handedness refers to individual preference for use of a
hand, known as dominant hand. An individual gives better
performance with his dominant hand. The less preferred or less
capable hand is called the nondominant hand. There are three
types of handedness -right-handedness , left handedness and
mixed handedness. It is well known fact that almost 90% of human
beings are primarily right -handed and only 10% of us (more among
males and less among females) are primarily left handed. There
are few who use both their hands for different activities, e.g., they
may write with right hand and eat with left hand. It has been found
that almost all right handers process speech in the left hemi sphere
and their left hemisphere is slightly larger than their right
hemisphere. Left handers are more diverse. Most of them process
speech in the left hemisphere only, but some process language in
right hemisphere or use both hemispheres.
It has been obs erved that right -handedness is common in all
human cultures and even in monkeys and apes. In fact ,right-
handedness appears before the influence of culture takes place,
e.g., 9 out of 10 fetuses suck the right hand’s thumb. This universal
prevalence of rig ht-handedness in humans and other primates
suggests that either genes or some prenatal factors are responsible
for right -handedness.munotes.in

Page 73

73In general, people think that it is not right to be left -handed.
Studies have shown mixed results for deciding whether bein gr i g h t
handed is better or left handed. It has been found that people with
reading disabilities, allergies and migraine headaches are mostly
left-handed. On the other hand, studies have also reported that left
handedness is more common among musicians, m athematicians,
professional baseball and cricket players, artists and architects. In
Iran, left handed students taking university entrance exam
outperformed righties in all subje cts (Noroozian et.al.,2003). So, it
is difficult to say being right handed is better than being left -handed.
4.5 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
Write short notes on
a.)The Brainstem
b.)Pituitary gland
c.)The Hypothalamus
d.)MRI & fMRI
e.)Importance of association cortex
f.)Brain Plasticity
g.)Handedness
4.6 SUMMARY:
In this unit, we have seen that eve rything psychological is
simultaneously biological. We began with looking at the impact of
endocrine system. It influences our bodily growth, helps in facing
challenges and influences our emotions. We also looked at brain
and its complex ities. To understan d brain, we used techniques like
EEG, MRI, PET.
We have old brain consisting of brain stem, the thalamus,
the reticular formation and the cerebellum. Between new brain
parts and old brain parts lies limbic system. The limbic system
contains the amygdala, the hypothalamus and the hippocampus.
The new brain is the highest part of our brain and consists of
cerebral cortex. The cortex has two hemispheres and four lobes.
These two hemispheres are connected with each other with corpus
callosum. Even though both hemispheres have different distinct
functions, they work in tandem and if one part is damaged, the
other part takes over its functions. So, we have brain plasticity. We
also read about how our personality changes if our frontal lobes are
damaged, that epi leptic seizures can be stopped by splitting brain.
We studied what kind of difficulties are faced by split brain
individuals and what is the difference between right and left
hemisphere. Finally, we also looked at how handedness influences
our behavior. Th at means how left -handed people are different from
right handed people. Ih o p ey o ue n j o y e dk n o w i n ga b o u tt h em a r v e l
called brain.munotes.in

Page 74

744.7 QUESTIONS:
1.How does the endocrine system transmit information and
interact with the nervous system?
2.What structures make up the brainstem, and what are the
functions of the brainstem, thalamus, and cerebellum?
3.What are the limbic system’s structure and functions?
4.What are the functions of the various cerebral cortex regions?
5.Write a detailed note on brain plasticity.
6.What do split brains reveal about the functions of our two brain
hemispheres?
4.8 REFERENCE:
1)Myers, D. G. (2013). Psychology .10thedition; International
edition. New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint
2013
2)Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2008). Psychology. (Indian sub -
continent adaptation). New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt.
ltd.

munotes.in

Page 75

75
Unit -5
LEARNING -I
Unit Structure :
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction: How Do We Learn?
5.1.1 Learning
5.1.2 Characteristics ofLearning
5.1.3 Types ofLearning:
5.2 Classical Conditioning
5.2.1. Pavlov’s Experiment:
5.2.2. Pavlov’s Legacy:
5.3 Operant Conditioning
5.3.1 Skinner’s Experiment
5.3.2 Skinner’s Legacy
5.4. Contrasting Classical andOperant Conditioning
5.5. Summary
5.6. Questions
5.7. References
5.0 OBJECTIVES:
After studying the unit you must be able
Define learning and unde rstand its characteristics.
Highlight the main aspects in Classical Conditioning theory .
Highlight the main aspects in Operant Conditioning theory .
Compare the Classical Conditioning theory and Operant
Conditioning theory of learning.
5.1 INTRODUCTION: HOW DO WE LEARN?
Learning is perhaps one of the most important human
abilities .Y o um i g h tt h i n ko fl e a r n i n gi nt e r m so fw h a ty o un e e dt od o
before an upcoming exam, the knowledge that you take away from
your classes, or new skills that you acquire through practice, these
changes represent only one component of learning. In fact, learning
is a very broad topic that is used to explain not only how we acquire
new knowledge and behavior but also a wide variety of other
psychological processes including the dev elopment of both
appropriate and inappropriate social behaviors. Learning allows usmunotes.in

Page 76

76
to create effective lives by being able to respond to changes. We
learn to avoid touching hot stoves, to find our way home from
school, and to remember which people have he lped us in the past
and which people have been unkind. Without the ability to learn
from our experiences, our lives would be remarkably dangerous
and inefficient. The principles of learning can also be used to
explain a wide variety of social interactions, including social
dilemmas in which people make important, and often selfish,
decisions about how to behave by calculating the costs and
benefits of different outcomes . Learning encompasses everything
we do and think. It plays a central role in the languag e we speak,
our thoughts, our attitudes, our beliefs, our goals and our
personality traits which could be adaptive or maladaptive. Post this
chapter you will be in position to understand how learning plays an
important role in many of the psychological pro cesses.
5.1.1 Learning:
Kimble defined learning as a “more or less permanent
change in behaviour potentiality, which occurs as a result of
repeated practice.” Learning can be defined as any relatively
permanent change in knowledge or behaviour that oc curs as result
of practice or experience. This definition has some important
components.
1)Learning is a change in behavior for better or worse.
2)It is a change that takes place through practice or experience.
3)Changes due to growth or maturation are not lea rning.
4)Before it can be called learning, the change must be relatively
permanent and it must last a fairly long time.
5)This change may not be evident until a situation arises in which
the new behavior can occur.
5.1.2 Characteristics of learning:
1)Learni ng is a constant modification of behavior that continues
throughout life.
2)Learning is dependent upon one’s innate intelligence and other
capabilities.
3)Learning is not possible without the basic minimum ability
needed to learn a task. As the nature of the task becomes
complex, so does the requirement for higher abilities.
4)Learning is developmental, time being one of its dimensions.
Learning is related to maturation too. The maturity of the
individual is an important factor in learning.
5)Environmental aspects of learning like opportunities as well as
facilities to learn are also important.munotes.in

Page 77

77
6)What is learned need not be “correct” or adaptive. We learn
good habits as well as bad. Learning need not always involve
any overt manifestations. Attitudes and emotions can be learnt
as well.
7)Learning involves the whole person, socially, emotionally and
intellectually. Interest and learning are positively related. The
individual learns best those things, which he is interested in
learning. Most kids find learning to play gam es easier than
learning to find square root of numbers.
8)Learning is responsive to incentives. In most cases positive
incentives such as reward are most effective than negative
incentives such as punishments.
9)Learning is always concerned with goals. These g oals can be
expressed in terms of observable behaviour.
Thus, it is apparent that learning goes on with life and the
process of life. It is all pervasive, reaching into various aspects of
human life. You learn at each moment of your life.
Philosophers f rom Aristotle to David Hume were of the
opinion that we, human beings learn through association. Our mind
naturally connects events that occur in sequence. Learned
associations often operate subtly. Learned associations also feed
our habitual behavior. As we repeat behaviors in a given context,
the behavior becomes associated with thecontext, e.g., drinking
tea in the morning. Our next experience of the context then evokes
our habitual response, e.g., the moment we get up in the morning,
by habit we want t o have tea. Studies have shown that on an
average, a particular behavior becomes part of our habits if it takes
place consistently for 66 days.
Even other animals learn through association. This is known
as associative learning. The process of learning a ssociations is
called conditioning. There are two forms of associative learning –
1. Classical Conditioning
2. Operant Conditioning
Let us see both these forms of associative learnings in detail.
5.2 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
In the early part of the 20t h century, Russian physiologist
Ivan Pavlov (1849 –1936) was studying the digestive system of
dogs when he noticed an interesting behavioral phenomenon: The
dogs began to salivate when the lab technicians who normally fed
them entered the room, even though the dogs had not yet received
any food. Pavlov realized that the dogs were salivating because
they knew that they were about to be fed; the dogs had begun tomunotes.in

Page 78

78
associate the arrival of the technicians with the food that soon
followed after their appearance i nt h er o o m .W i t hh i st e a mo f
researchers, Pavlov began studying this process in more detail.
5.2.1. Pavlov’s Experiment:
He conducted a series of experiments in which, over a
number of trials, dogs were exposed to a sound immediately before
receiving foo d. He systematically controlled the onset of the sound
and the timing of the delivery of the food, and recorded the amount
of the dog’s salivation. Initially the dogs salivated only when they
saw or smelled the food, but after several pairings of the sound and
the food, the dogs began to salivate as soon as they heard the
sound. The animals had learned to associate the sound with the
food that followed.
Pavlov had identified a fundamental associative learning
process called classical conditioning. Classic al conditioning refers
to learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (e.g., a tone)
becomes associated with a stimulus (e.g., food) that naturally
produces a behavior. After the association is learned, the
previously neutral stimulus is sufficient to pro duce the behavior.
As you can see in the Figure below “Panel Image of Whistle
and Dog", psychologists use specific terms to identify the stimuli
and the responses in classical conditioning. The unconditioned
stimulus (US) is something (such as food) tha tt r i g g e r san a t u r a l ly
occurring response, and the unconditioned response (UR) is the
naturally occurring response (such as salivation) that follows the
unconditioned stimulus. The conditioned stimulus (CS) is a neutral
stimulus that, after being repeatedl y presented prior to the
unconditioned stimulus, evokes a similar response as the
unconditioned stimulus. In Pavlov‘s experiment, the sound of the
tone served as the conditioned stimulus that, after learning,
produced the conditioned response (CR), which i s the acquired
response to the formerly neutral stimulus. Note that the UR and the
CR are the same behavior —in this case salivation —but they are
given different names because they are produced by different
stimuli (the US and the CS, respectively).
Top le ft: Before conditioning; the unconditioned stimulus
(US) naturally produces the unconditioned response (UR). Top
right: Before conditioning, the neutral stimulus (the whistle) does
not produce the salivation response. Bottom left: The unconditioned
stimulu s (US), in this case the food, is repeatedly presented
immediately after the neutral stimulus. Bottom right: After learning,
the neutral stimulus (now known as the conditioned stimulus or
CS), is sufficient to produce the conditioned responses (CR).munotes.in

Page 79

79
Condi tioning is evolutionarily beneficial because it allows
organisms to develop expectations that help them prepare for both
good and bad events. Imagine, for instance, that an animal first
smells new food, eats it, and then gets sick. If the animal can learn
to associate the smell (CS) with the food (US), then it will quickly
learn that the food that has bad smell creates the negative
outcome, and will not eat it the next time.
Figure5.5.1.: Panel Image of Whistle and Dog (Classical Conditioning)
Key Elements in Classical Conditioning Model:
Pavlov identified four key elements in his classical conditioning
model:
1)Conditioned stimulus (CS): An originally irrelevant stimulus
that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US),
comes t o trigger a conditioned response.
2)Conditioned response (CR): The learned response to
conditioned stimulus is called Conditioned response.
3)Unconditioned stimulus (US): A stimulus that
unconditionally —naturally and automatically —triggers a
response.
4)Unconditioned response (UR): The original response to the
unconditioned stimulus is called unconditioned response, such
as salivation when food is in the mouth.
Conditioning Processes:
Pavlov and his associates explored five major conditioning
processes: a cquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery,
generalization and discrimination.
munotes.in

Page 80

80
1)Acquisition:
Association between conditioned stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus is called acquisition. In simple words, the
conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are repeatedly
paired together and behavior increases. Acquisition is also called
initial learning of stimulus response relationship. Timing is an
important factor in acquisition. Pavlov found that the time lapse
between presenting neutral stimul us and unconditioned stimulus
should not be more than half a second.
Another important point in acquisition is the sequence.
Conditioning will not occur if unconditioned stimulus appears before
neutral stimulus. This is because classical conditioning is
biologically adaptive. It helps humans and animals to prepare for
good or bad events, e.g. , in Pavlov’s experiment , for the dog , the
originally neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus after
signaling an important biological event -the arrival of f ood. If instead
of food , something else, such as a flower was presented, the
conditioning would have not taken place. If food was presented
before presenting sounding the bell, even then conditioning would
not have taken place, because the sound of bell d oes not help dog.
It can be concluded that ‘conditioning helps an animal survive and
reproduce -by responding to cues that help in gaining food, avoid
danger, locate mates and produce offspring .(Hollis, 1997)
2)Extinction:
Extinction refers to the repe ated presentation of the
conditioned stimulus without unconditioned stimulus following it .I n
other words, theunconditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented .
This results in conditioned response decreasing gradually. For
example, if buzzer is presented agai na n da g a i nw i t h o u tp r e s e n t i n g
food, dog will gradually stop salivating to the buzzer.
3)Spontaneous recovery:
After a pause, when the CS is again presented alone, the
behavior may occur again, though in weaker form, and then again
show extinction. The increase in responding to the CS following a
pause after extinction is known as spontaneous recovery.
4)Generalization:
Generalization r efers to the tendency to respond to stimuli
that resemble the original conditioned stimulus. For example, dog
will s alivate to the sounds of bell, buzzer, etc. The ability to
generalize has important evolutionary significance. If we eat some
red berries and they make us sick, it would be a good idea to think
twice before we eat some purple berries. Although the berries are
not exactly the same, they nevertheless are similar and may have
the same negative properties.munotes.in

Page 81

81
Researchers have also found that we like unfamiliar people
more if they look somewhat like someone we have learned to like.
These examples show that peopl e’s emotional reactions to one
stimulus have generalized to another similar stimuli.
5)Discrimination:
The tendency to respond differently to stimuli that are similar
but not identical. Organisms must also learn that many stimuli that
are perceived as s imilar are functionally different and they have to
respond adaptively to each. This learned ability to distinguish
between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli is called
discrimination. For example, dog could learn to distinguish between
different sounds of buzzer depending upon which sound was
followed by unconditioned stimulus (food).
6)Second -order Conditioning :
An existing conditioned stimulus can serve as an
unconditioned stimulus for a pairing with a new conditioned
stimulus, this pr ocess is known as second -order conditioning.
(provide an example)
Laws of Classical (Pavlovian) conditioning :
There are three basic laws in classical conditioning. Complete
information about the laws are given below.
1)Law of Excitation:
It says that if a previously neutral CS is paired with the UCS, the
CS acquires excitatory properties. That is, it acquires the properties
of eliciting the CR.
2)Law of Internal Inhibition:
Internal inhibition develops when the conditioned stimulus is not
attended by the un conditioned, whether this is once or always, but
in the latter event only under certain circumstances. This law
characterized ag r o u pi n h i b i t i o np h e n o m e n o n which are caused by
change in the conditioned association itself and unlike the various
forms of unc onditional inhibition are acquired in learning process.
3)Law of External Inhibition:
Inessence, this law states that excitatory or inhibitory process in
the conditioning can be disrupted by novel distracting stimuli. This
is called law of external inhibit ion since the inhibition is not being
acquired in the learning process but from outside.
5.2.2.P a v l o v ’ sl e g a c y :
Most psychologists agree that classical conditioning is a
basic form of learning. If we judged by today’s knowledge of
cognitive processes and biological predispositions, Pavlov’s ideas
were incomplete. But if we see further than Pavlov did, it is becausemunotes.in

Page 82

82
we stand on his shoulders. Why does Pavlov’s work remain so
important? If he had merely taught us that old dogs can learn new
tricks, his expe riments would long ago have been forgotten. Why
should we care that dogs can be conditioned to salivate at the
sound of a tone? The importance lies first in this finding: Many
other responses to many other stimuli can be classically
conditioned in many oth er organisms —in fact, in every species
tested, from earthworms to fish to dogs to monkeys to people
(Schwartz, 1984). You have to put in mind that subsequent studies
have found out that the principle made with the dog is applicable to
all types of species including us, human beings. Through Pavlov's
work we were able to find out that a process such as learning can
be studied objectively. For instance Doctor's use Classical
conditioning to cure patients. Patients easily get cured by sugar
water because they believed their doctor gave them the proper
medication.
Thus, classical conditionings one way that virtually all
organisms learn to adapt to their environment. Second, Pavlov
showed us how a process such as learning can be studied
objectively. He was prou dt h a th i sm e t h o d si n v o l v e dv i r t u a l l yn o
subjective judgments or guesses about what went on in a dog’s
mind. The salivary response is a behavior measurable in cubic
centimeters of saliva. Pavlov’s success therefore suggested a
scientific model for how the young discipline of psychology might
proceed —by isolating the basic building blocks of complex
behaviors and studying them with objective laboratory procedures .
These approaches made him one of the leaders in behaviorism and
behavior psychology
5.3 OPERAN T CONDITIONING
Psychologist Edward L. Thorndike (1874 –1949) was the first
scientist to systematically study operant conditioning. In his
research Thorndike (1898) observed cats that had been placed in a
“puzzle box” from which they tried to escape. At fir st the cats
scratched, bit, and swatted haphazardly, without any idea of how to
get out. But eventually, and accidentally, they pressed the lever that
opened the door and exited to their prize, a scrap of fish. The next
time the cat was constrained within the box, it attempted fewer of
the ineffective responses before carrying out the successful
escape, and after several trials the cat learned to almost
immediately make the correct response. Observing these changes
in the cat’s behavior led Thorndike to dev elop his law of effect, the
principle that responses that create a typically pleasant outcome in
a particular situation are more likely to occur again in a similar
situation, whereas responses that produce a typically unpleasant
outcome are less likely to occur again in the situation (Thorndike,
1911). The essence of the law of effect is that successfulmunotes.in

Page 83

83
responses, because they are pleasurable, are stamped in by
experience and thus occur more frequently. Unsuccessful
responses, which produce unpleasant exper iences, are stamped
out‖ and subsequently occur less frequently.
5.3.1 Skinner’s Experiment:
Instrumental conditioning is sometimes also, roughly
speaking called as operant conditioning. This term was coined by
B.F. Skinner .T h ei n f l u e n t i a lb e h a v i o r a lp sychologist B. F. Skinner
(1904 –1990) expanded on Thorndike‘s ideas to develop a more
complete set of principles to explain operant conditioning. Skinner
created specially designed environments known as operant
chambers (usually called Skinner boxes) to sy stemically study
learning. A Skinner box (operant chamber) is a structure that is big
enough to accommodate a rodent or bird and that contains a bar or
key that the organism can press or peck to release food or water. It
also contains a device to record th e animal’s responses. The most
basic of Skinner‘s experiments were quite similar to Thorndike‘s
research with cats. A rat placed in the chamber reacted as one
might expect, scurrying about the box and sniffing and clawing at
the floor and walls. Eventually the rat chanced upon a lever, which
it pressed to release pellets of food. The next time around, the rat
took a little less time to press the lever, and on successive trials,
the time it took to press the lever became shorter and shorter. Soon
the rat was pressing the lever as fast as it could eat the food that
appeared. As predicted by the law of effect, the rat had learned to
repeat the action that brought about the food and cease the actions
that did not.
Figure 5.2 :S k i n n e r sE x p e r i m e n t a lB o x
Skinner studied, in detail, how animals changed their
behavior through reinforcement and punishment, and he developed
terms that explained the processes of operant learning. Skinner
munotes.in

Page 84

84
used the term rein forcer to refer to any event that strengthens or
increases the likelihood of a behavior and the term punisher to refer
to any event that weakens or decreases the likelihood of a
behavior. What is reinforcing depends on the animal and the
conditions. For people, it may be praise, attention while for a
hungry rat it may be food.
Types of Reinforcers:
He used the terms positive and negative to refer to whether
a reinforcement was presented or removed, respectively.
1. Positive reinforcement strengthens a response by presenting
something pleasant afte r the response .
2. Negative reinforcement strengthens a response by reducing or
removing something unpleasant. For example, giving a child praise
for completing his homework represents positive reinforcement,
whereas taking aspirin to reduce the pain of a headache represents
negative reinforcement. In both cases, the reinforcement makes it
more likely that behavior will occur again in the future.
Difference Between Negative Reinforcement and Punishment:
Reinforcement, either positive or negative, works b y
increasing the likelihood of a behavior. Punishment, on the other
hand, refers to any event that weakens or reduces the likelihood of
a behavior. Positive punishment weakens a response by presenting
something unpleasant after the undesirable response, wh ereas
negative punishment weakens a response by reducing or removing
something pleasant. A child who is grounded after fighting with a
sibling (positive punishment) or who loses out on the opportunity to
go to recess after getting a poor grade (negative pu nishment) is
less likely to repeat these behaviors.
Although the distinction between reinforcement (which
increases behavior) and punishment (which decreases it) is usually
clear, in some cases it is difficult to determine whether a reinforcer
is positi ve or negative. On a hot day, a cool breeze could be seen
as a positive reinforcer (because it brings in cool air) or a negative
reinforcer (because it removes hot air). In other cases,
reinforcement can be both positive and negative. One may smoke a
cigar ette both because it brings pleasure (positive reinforcement)
and because it eliminates the craving for nicotine (negative
reinforcement).munotes.in

Page 85

85
Table 5..1: How Positive and Negative Reinforcement and Punishment Influence
Behavior .
Operant
conditioning
termDescription Outcome Example
Positive
reinforcementAdd or
increase a
pleasant
stimulusBehavior is
strengthenedGiving a
student a prize
after he gets
an A on a test.
Negative
reinforcementReduce or
remove an
unpleasant
stimulusBehavior is
streng thenedTaking
painkillers that
eliminate pain
increases the
likelihood that
you will take
painkillers
again.
Positive
punishmentPresent or add
an unpleasant
stimulusBehavior is
weakenedGiving a
student extra
homework
after she
misbehaves in
class.
Negative
PunishmentReduce or
remove a
pleasant
stimulusBehavior is
WeakenedTaking away a
teen‘s
computer after
he misses
curfew.
It is also important to note that reinforcement and
punishment are not simply opposites. The use of positive
reinforcement in changing behavior is almost always more effective
than using punishment. This is because positive reinforcement
makes the person or animal feel better, helping create a positive
relationship with the person providing the reinforcement. Types of
positive r einforcement that are effective in everyday life include
verbal praise or approval, the awarding of status or prestige, and
direct financial payment. Punishment, on the other hand, is more
likely to create only temporary changes in behavior because it is
based on coercion and typically creates a negative and adversarial
relationship with the person providing the reinforcement. When the
person who provides the punishment leaves the situation, the
unwanted behavior is likely to return. Reinforcement helps to
increase a behavior, while punishment helps to decrease a
behavior. Reinforcers and punishers have different types of
consequences.munotes.in

Page 86

86
3.Primary reinforcers: Such as food, water, and caresses, are
naturally satisfying.
Primary punishers: such as pain and fr eezing temperatures, are
naturally unpleasant.
4.Secondary reinforcers: Such as money, fast cars, and good
grades, are satisfying because they’ve become associated with
primary reinforcers.
Secondary punishers: such as failing grades and social
disappro val, are unpleasant because they’ve become associated
with primary punishers.
Secondary reinforcers and punishers are also called
conditioned reinforcers and punishers because they arise through
classical conditioning. Most real -world reinforcers are no t
continuous; they occur on a partial (or intermittent) reinforcement
schedule —a schedule in which the responses are sometimes
reinforced, and sometimes not. In comparison to continuous
reinforcement, partial reinforcement schedules lead to slower initial
learning, but they also lead to greater resistance to extinction.
Because the reinforcement does not appear after every behavior, it
takes longer for the learner to determine that the reward is no
longer coming, and thus extinction is slower. The four type so f
partial reinforcement schedules are summarized in below table.
5. Immediate & Delayed Reinforcers: Unlike other animals,
humans do respond to delayed reinforcers, for example, the salary
at the end of the month, good marks at the end of the exam, tro phy
at the end of the series of game, etc. To function effectively, human
beings need to learn to delay gratification. Experimental studies
have shown that even four-year kids show this ability to delay
gratification. While choosing a candy, they prefer ha ving a big
reward next day rather than eating a small candy today. Children
who learn to delay gratification tend to become socially more
competent and high -achieving adults.
Shaping
Perhaps you remember watching a movie or being at a show
in which an a nimal —maybe a dog, a horse, or a dolphin —did some
pretty amazing things. The trainer gave a command and the dolphin
swam to the bottom of the pool, picked up a ring on its nose,
jumped out of the water through a hoop in the air, dived again to
the bottom o f the pool, picked up another ring, and then took both
of the rings to the trainer at the edge of the pool. The animal was
trained to do the trick, and the principles of operant conditioning
were used to train it. The question arises how they learn such
complex behaviors. The answer is that it takes place through themunotes.in

Page 87

87
concept of shaping in operant conditioning. Skinner said that in
everyday life, we continuously reinforce and shape others’
behaviour.
Shaping is based on the method of successive approximati on.
That is to begin with a person/animal is rewarded or given positive
reinforcement even if the response is in the direction of right
response and not exactly the right response. Gradually, rewarding
responses that are ever -closer to the final desired be havior and
ignore all other responses. For example, suppose a trainer wants a
rat to learn to press the lever to get the food. In initial stages, the
trainer will reward the rat with food even if rat moves in the direction
of the lever. Once the rat starts regularly being close to bar, the
food will be given only when it moves closer to the lever. Once, the
rat regularly remains closer to lever, then food will be given only
when it presses the lever. Thus, rat can be trained to press the
lever by rewarding it for each step in the right direction. This
method is used by human beings and animal trainers alike.
Reinforcement Schedules:
One way to expand the use of operant learning is to modify
the schedule on which the reinforcement is applied. To this poin t
we have only discussed a continuous reinforcement schedule, in
which the desired response is reinforced every time it occurs;
whenever the dog rolls over, for instance, it gets a biscuit.
Continuous reinforcement results in relatively fast learning but a lso
rapid extinction of the desired behavior once the reinforcer
disappears. The problem is that because the organism is used to
receiving the reinforcement after every behavior, the responder
may give up quickly when it doesn’t appear .
Table5. 2: Reinfor cement Schedules.
Reinforcement
scheduleExplanation Real-world example
Fixed -ratio Schedule Behavior is
reinforced after a
specific number of
responses.Factory workers who
are paid according to
the number of
products they
produce.
Variable -ratio
Sched uleBehavior is
reinforced after an
average, but
unpredictable,
number of
responses.Payoffs from slot
machines and other
games of chance.munotes.in

Page 88

88
Fixed -interval
ScheduleBehavior is
reinforced for the
first response after a
specific amount of
time has passed.People who earn a
monthly salary.
Variable -interval
ScheduleBehavior is
reinforced for the
first response after
an average, but
unpredictable,
amount of time has
passed.Person who checks
voice mail for
messages.
Partial reinforcement schedules are de termined by whether
the reinforcement is presented on the basis of the time that elapses
between reinforcement (interval) or on the basis of the number of
responses that the organism engages in (ratio), and by whether the
reinforcement occurs on a regular (fixed) or unpredictable (variable)
schedule. In a fixed -interval schedule, reinforcement occurs for the
first response made after a specific amount of time has passed. For
instance, on a one -minute fixed -interval schedule the animal
receives a reinforceme nt every minute, assuming it engages in the
behavior at least once during the minute. Animals under fixed -
interval schedules tend to slow down their responding immediately
after the reinforcement but then increase the behavior again as the
time of the next reinforcement gets closer. (Most students study for
exams the same way). In a variable -interval schedule the
reinforcers appear on an interval schedule, but the timing is varied
around the average interval, making the actual appearance of the
reinforcer u npredictable. An example might be checking your e -
mail: You are reinforced by receiving messages that come, on
average, say every 30 minutes, but the reinforcement occurs only
at random times.
Interval reinforcement schedules tend to produce slow and
steady rates of responding. In a fixed -ratio schedule, a behavior is
reinforced after a specific number of responses. For instance, a
rat‘s behavior may be reinforced after it has pressed a key 20
times, or a salesperson may receive a bonus after she has sold 10
products. Animals trained under “Different Partial Reinforcement
Schedules", once the organism has learned to act in accordance
with the fixed -reinforcement schedule, it will pause only briefly
when reinforcement occurs before returning to a high level of
responsiveness. A variable -ratio schedule provides reinforcers after
a specific but average number of responses. Winning money from
slot machines or a lottery ticket are examples of reinforcement thatmunotes.in

Page 89

89
occur on a variable -ratio schedule. For instance, a slot machine
may be programmed to provide a win every 20 times the user pulls
the handle, on average. Ratio schedules tend to produce high rates
of responding because reinforcement increases as the number of
responses increase.
5.3.2 Skinner’s legacy:
B.F.Skinner was known as one of the most intellectual
psychologist in the late twentieth century. He repeatedly insisted
that external influences shape behavior. According to him, internal
thoughts and feelings don’t shape behaviour. He counseled people
touse operant conditioning principles to influence others’ behavior.
He said we should use rewards to evoke more desirable behavior.
According to Skinner external consequences already
haphazardly control people’s behavior. Why not administer those
conseque nces toward human betterment? Wouldn’t reinforcers be
more humane than the punishments used in homes, schools, and
prisons? And if it is humbling to think that our history has shaped
us, doesn’t this very idea also give us hope that we can shape our
future ? The operant conditioning principles are used considerably
in variety of situations. Reinforcement technologies are also work in
schools, businesses and homes.
5.4. CONTRASTING CLASSICAL AND OPERANT
CONDITIONING
As we have seen, both classical and oper ant conditionings
involve associative learning i.e., the establishment of a relationship
between two events. Each learning process produces a new
behaviour. Some of the differences between operant and classical
conditioning lie in the extent to which reinf orcement depends on the
behavior of the learner. In classical conditioning, the learner is
automatically reinforced. That is how it learns to respond to a once
neutral stimulus. In operant conditioning, the learner must provide a
correct response in order to receive the reinforcement. Another
difference between the two forms of conditioning is the type of
behavior to which each method applies. Classical conditioning
applies to a behavior that is always wanted. In operant conditioning,
a behavior can be lear ned or extinguished. If you want to train a
dog not to do something, you would use a form of punishment. In
essence, then in the operant model the learner actively operates on
his environment i.e., emits the response while under the classical
model the lea rner simply responds to the environment i.e., the
response is elicited from him/her. Classical and operant
conditioning are similar, but they do differ in a few ways. Both are
fairly reliable ways to teach an organism to act in a specific manner
and modify behaviour .munotes.in

Page 90

90
5.5. SUMMARY
In this unit we began by explaining the concept of learning,
characteristics of learning and types of learning. We then explained
Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning theory through experiments .I n
classical conditioning theory we hav e studied elements of classical
conditioning and different laws of classical conditioning. Following
this we have studied operant conditioning theory. Different
elements o f operant conditioning were explained. In operant
conditioning we have also studied c oncepts like positive
reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment,
negative punishment. We have also studied complex behaviors
through operant conditioning. Following this we explained the
different types of reinforcers (primary reinforcers, secondary
reinforcers, primary punishers, secondary punishers) and different
types of reinforcement schedules such as Fixed -ratio Schedule,
Variable -ratio Schedule, Fixed -interval Schedule and Variable -
interval Schedule .T o w a r d st h ee n do ft h eu n i tw eh a v e compared
the concepts of classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
5.6.QUESTIONS
a)What is learning? Discuss in details.
b)Explain Operant Conditioning theory ?
c)Explain Classical C onditioning theory ?
d)Discuss different concepts in Classical Condition ing?
e)Discuss different concepts in Operant Conditioning?
f)What is difference between Classical Condition ingt h e o r ya n d
Operant Conditioning theory?
5.7. REFERENCES
Myers, D. G. (2013). Psychology .10thedition; International edition.
New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint 2013.
Feldman, R.S. (2013). Understanding Psychology.thpublications
11edi. New York: McGraw Hill
B. B. (2012). Psychology: An Introduction . 11th edi. New York:
McGraw -Hill Publications.
Schachter, D. L., Gilbert, D. T., & Wegner, D. M. (2011).
Psychology. New York: Worth Publishers.
munotes.in

Page 91

91
Unit -6
LEARNING -II
Unit Structure :
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction: Biology, Cognition, And Learning
6.1.1 Biological Constraints onConditioning:
6.1.2. Cognition’s Influence onConditioning:
6.2 Learning byObservation
6.2.1 Mirrors andImita tioninThe Brain
6.2.2 Applications ofObservational Learning
6.2.3 Thinking Critically About: Does Viewing Media
Violence Trigger Violent Behaviour?
6.3 Summary
6.4 Questions
6.5 References
6.0 OBJECTIVES
Dear students! Just to refresh your memo ry,f r o mt h e
previous chapter you must have a fair idea about the nature of
learning, factors affecting learning, classical and operant
conditioning and their implications in human life. In this unit you will
be learning about Cognitive approaches to learn ing. At the
completion of this unit you will be able to
Explain the relationship between Biology, Cognition, and
Learning.
Highlight Biological constraints on conditioning and cognition’s
influence on conditioning
Understand observational learning.
Explore the Effects of Violence on Aggression .
6.1 INTRODUCTION: BIOLOGY, COGNITION, AND
LEARNING
In previous chapter, we have studied classical conditioning
and operant conditioning in details. As you have seen in the
previous unit, behavioural psychologis ts emphasize changes in
behaviour as the outcome of learning. They are concerned with the
effects of external events on the individual’s responses. In contrast,
Cognitive psychologists say that learning itself is an internalmunotes.in

Page 92

92
process that cannot be observed directly. The change occurs in a
person’s ability to respond to a particular situation. The change in
behaviour is only a reflection of the internal change. Interestingly
both behaviorism and cognitivism began as opposition to
structuralism of Wundt. Wilh elm Wundt, who set up the first
experimental psychology laboratory in Europe around 1879, was
looking for the basic elements in psychology -the smallest parts of
analyzable consciousness analogous with the Physics’ atomic
theory of matter. Wundt thought th at by analyzing consciousness
into tiny elements or ‘atoms’ he would make Psychology as
respectable a science as Physics! Wundt, using the technique of
introspection trained his subjects to look within themselves and
report all of their most fleeting and m inute feelings and sensations.
We will discuss in detail how biology and cognition influences
learning in next two topics.
6.1.1 Biological constraints on conditioning:
The school of behaviorism was born under the impetus of
John B. Watson. Watson was ver y much influenced by Ivan
Pavlov’s work. Questioning Wundt’s attempt to analyze
consciousness into all its basic parts, Watson insisted on objectivity
and he considered only behaviour that consisted of observable
stimuli and response to be worthy of invest igations.
Ever since Charles Darwin, scientists have assumed that all
animals share a common evolutionary history and thus
commonalities in their makeup and functioning. Pavlov and
Watson, for example, believed the basic laws of learning were
essentially similar in all animals. So it should make little difference
whether one studied pigeons or people. Moreover, it seemed that
any natural response could be conditioned to any neutral stimulus.
As learning researcher Gregory Kimble proclaimed in 1956, “Just
about any activity of which the organism is capable can be
conditioned and . . . these responses can be conditioned to any
stimulus that the organism can perceive.”
Twenty -five years later, Kimble (1981) humbly
acknowledged that “half a thousand” scientifi cr e p o r t sh a dp r o v e n
him wrong. More than the early behaviorists realized, an animal’s
capacity for conditioning is constrained by its biology. Each species’
predispositions prepare it to learn the associations that enhance its
survival. Environments are n ot the whole story.
John Garcia was among those who challenged the prevailing
idea that all associations can be learned equally well. While
researching the effects of radiation on laboratory animals, Garcia
and Robert Koelling (1966) noticed that rats beg an to avoid drinking
water from the plastic bottles in radiation chambers. Could classical
conditioning be the culprit? Might the rats have linked the plastic -munotes.in

Page 93

93
tasting water (a CS) to the sickness (UR) triggered by the radiation
(US)? To test their hunch, G arcia and Koelling gave the rats a
particular taste, sight, or sound (CS) and later also gave them
radiation or drugs (US) that led to nausea and vomiting (UR).
Two surprising findings emerged: First, even if sickened as
late as several hours after tasti ng a particular novel flavor, the rats
thereafter avoided that flavor. This appeared to violate the notion
that for conditioning to occur, the US must immediately follow the
CS. Second, the sickened rats developed aversions to tastes but
not to sights or s ounds. This contradicted the behaviorists’ idea that
any perceivable stimulus could serve as a CS. But it made adaptive
sense, because for rats the easiest way to identify tainted food is to
taste it. (If sickened after sampling a new food, they thereafter
avoid the food —which makes it difficult to eradicate a population of
“bait-shy” rats by poisoning.)
Humans, too, seem biologically prepared to learn some
associations rather than others. If you become violently ill four
hours after eating contaminated mu ssels, you will probably develop
an aversion to the taste of mussels but not to the sight of the
associated restaurant, its plates, the people you were with, or the
music you heard there. In contrast, birds, which hunt by sight,
appear biologically primed to develop aversions to the sight of
tainted food (Nicolaus et al., 1983). Organisms are predisposed to
learn associations that help them adapt.
The discovery of biological constraints affirms the value of
different levels of analysis, including the biolo gical and cognitive ,
when we seek to understand phenomena such as learning. And
once again, we see an important principle at work: Learning
enables animals to adapt to their environments. Responding to
stimuli that announce significant events, such as food or pain, is
adaptive. So is a genetic predisposition to associate a CS with a
US that follows predictably and immediately: Causes often
immediately precede effects. Often, but not always, as we saw in
the taste -aversion findings. Adaptation also sheds lig ht on this
exception. The ability to discern that effect need not follow cause
immediately —that poisoned food can cause sickness quite a while
after it has been eaten —gives animals an adaptive advantage.
Occasionally, however, our predispositions trick us. When
chemotherapy triggers nausea and vomiting more than an hour
following treatment, cancer patients may over time develop
classically conditioned nausea (and sometimes anxiety) to the
sights, sounds, and smells associ ated with the clinic ( Hall, 1997).
Merely returning to the clinic’s waiting room or seeing the nurses
can provoke these conditioned feelings (Burish& Carey, 1986;
Davey, 1992). Under normal circumstances, such revulsion to
sickening stimuli would be adaptive.munotes.in

Page 94

94
However, there are limits on ope rant conditioning. Mark
Twain said it so well, “Never try to teach a pig to sing. It wastes
your time and annoys the pig.” We can learn and retain behavior
that reflects our biological predispositions, e.g., you can teach
pigeons to flap their wings to avo id being shocked and to peck to
get food. Flapping wings and pecking for food are natural pigeon
behaviors. But you can’t teach a pigeon to peck to avoid shock and
to flap its wings to get food. So biological constraints predispose
organisms to learn assoc iations that are naturally adaptive.
6.1.2.Cognition’s influence on conditioning:
In their dismissal of “mentalistic” concepts such as
consciousness, Pavlov and Watson underestimated the importance
of cognitive processes (thoughts, perceptions, expectat ions) and
biological constraints on an organism’s learning capacity.
Cognitive Processes:
The early behaviorists believed that rats’ and dogs’ learned
behaviors could be reduced to mindless mechanisms, so there was
no need to consider cognition. But Rober t Rescorla and Allan
Wagner (1972) showed that an animal can learn the predictability of
an event. If a shock always is preceded by a tone, and then may
also be preceded by a light that accompanies the tone, a rat will
react with fear to the tone but not t ot h el i g h t .A l t h o u g ht h el i g h ti s
always followed by the shock, it adds no new information; the tone
is a better predictor. The more predictable the association, the
stronger the conditioned response. It’s as if the animal learns an
expectancy, an awarene ss of how likely it is that the US will occur.
Such experiments help explain why classical conditioning
treatments that ignore cognition often have limited success. For
example, people receiving therapy for alcohol dependency may be
given alcohol spiked wi th a nauseating drug. Will they then
associate alcohol with sickness? If classical conditioning were
merely a matter of “stamping in” stimulus associations, we might
hope so, and to some extent this does occur. However, the
awareness that the nausea is ind uced by the drug, not the alcohol,
often weakens the association between drinking alcohol and feeling
sick. So, even in classical conditioning, it is (especially with
humans) not simply the CS –US association but also the thought
that counts.
Evidence of c ognitive processes have also come from
experiments on rats in maze running. In the experiments, Tolman
placed hungry rats in a maze with no reward for finding their way
through it. He also studied a comparison group that was rewarded
with food at the end o f the maze. As the unreinforced rats explored
the maze, they developed a cognitive map, a mental picture of the
layout of the maze. After 10 sessions in the maze without
reinforcement, food was placed in a goal box at the end of themunotes.in

Page 95

95
maze. As soon as the ra ts became aware of the food, they were
able to find their way through the maze quickly, just as quickly as
the comparison group, which had been rewarded with food all
along. This is known as latent learning: learning that occurs but is
not observable in be havior until there is a reason to demonstrate it.
The underlying point is that there is more to learning than
associating a response to its consequences, there is also cognition.
6.2 LEARNING BY OBSERVATION
Observational learning (modeling) is learning by observing
the behavior of others , especially among humans .B a n d u r aa n dh i s
associates have done research on modeling. The researchers first
let the children view one of the three types of modeling (aggressive,
non-aggressive and no model condition) ,a n d then let them play in
a room in which there were some really fun toys. To create some
frustration in the children, Bandura let the children play with the fun
toys for only a couple of minutes before taking them away. Then
Bandura gave the children a chanc et op l a yw i t ht h e Bobo doll. If
you guessed that most of the children imitated the model, you
would be correct. Regardless of which type of modeling the children
had seen, and regardless of the sex of the model or the child, the
children who had seen the model behaved aggressively also
behaved aggressively just as the model had done. They also
punched, kicked, sat on the doll, and hit it with the hammer.
Bandura and his colleagues had demonstrated that these children
had learned new behaviors, simply by ob serving and imitating
others.
Figure: 6. 1. Learning from observation: This 14 -month -old boy in
Andrew Meltzoff’s laboratory is imitating behavior he has seen on
TV. In the top photo the infant leans forward and carefully watches
the adult pull apart a t oy. In the middle photo he has been given the
toy. In the bottom photo he pulls the toy apart, imitating what he
has seen the adult do.munotes.in

Page 96

96
Observational learning is useful for animals and for people
because it allows u st ol e a r nw i t h o u th a v i n gt oa c t u a l l ye n g a g ei n
what might be a risky behavior. Monkeys that see other monkeys
respond with fear to the sight of a snake learn to fear the snake
themselves, even if they have been raised in a laboratory and have
never actual ly seen a snake (Cook & Mineka, 1990). As Bandura
put it, the prospects for human survival would be slim indeed if one
could learn only by suffering the consequences of trial and error.
For this reason, one does not teach children to swim, adolescents
todrive automobiles, and novice medical students to perform
surgery by having them discover the appropriate behavior through
the consequences of their successes and failures. The more costly
and hazardous the possible mistakes, the heavier is the reliance on
observational learning from competent learners. (Bandura, 1977, p.
212).We are especially likely to learn from people we perceive as
similar to ourselves, successful or as admirable.
6.2.1Mirrors and imitation in the brain:
On a 1991 hot summer day in Parma, Italy, a lab monkey
awaited its researchers’ return from lunch. The researchers had
implanted wires next to its motor cortex, in a frontal lobe brain
region that enabled the monkey to plan and enact movements.
When the monkey moved a peanut into it sm o u t h ,f o re x a m p l e ,t h e
monitoring device would buzz. That day, as one of the researchers
reentered the lab, ice cream cone in hand, the monkey stared at
munotes.in

Page 97

97
him. As the student raised the cone to lick it, the monkey’s monitor
again buzzed —as if the motionle ss monkey had itself moved
(Blakeslee, 2006; Iacoboni, 2008). Having earlier observed the
same weird result when the monkey watched humans or other
monkeys move peanuts to their mouths, the flabbergasted
researchers, led by Giacomo Rizzolatti (2002, 2006), eventually
surmised that they had stumbled onto a previously unknown type of
neuron: mirror neurons, whose activity provides a neural basis for
imitation and observational learning. We will discuss mirror neurons
in details.
Mirror neurons:
Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain
actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring
of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy. When a
monkey grasps, holds, or tears something, these neurons fire. And
they likewise fire w hen the monkey observes another doing so.
When one monkey sees, these neurons mirror what another
monkey does.
It’s not just monkey business. Imitation shapes even very
young humans’ behavior. Shortly after birth, a baby may imitate an
adult who sticks o ut his tongue. By 8 to 16 months, infants imitate
various novel gestures (Jones, 2007). By age 12 months, they
begin looking where an adult is looking (Brooks & Meltzoff, 2005).
And by age 14 months ( FIGURE 6.4. A.), children imitate acts
modeled on TV (Mel tzoff, 1988; Meltzoff &M o o r e ,1 9 8 9 ,1 9 9 7 ) .
Children see, children do.
PET scans of different brain areas reveal that humans, like
monkeys, have a mirror neuron system that supports empathy and
imitation (Iacoboni, 2008). As we observe another’s action, our
brain generates an inner simulation, enabling us to experience the
other’s experience within ourselves. Mirror neurons help give rise to
children’s empathy and to their ability to infer another’s mental
state, an ability known as theory of mind. People with autism
display reduced imitative yawning and mirror neuron activity —
“broken mirrors,” some have said (Ramachandran & Oberman,
2006; Senju et al., 2007; Williams et al., 2006).
For most of us, however, our mirror neurons make emotions
contagious. We grasp others’ states of mind —often feeling what
they feel by mental simulation. We find it harder to frown when
viewing a smile than when viewing a frown (Dimberg et al.,2000,
2002). We find ourselves yawning after observing another’s yawn,
laughing when others laugh. When watching movies, a scorpion
crawling up someone’s leg makes us tighten up; observing a
passionate kiss, we may notice our own lips puckering. Seeing a
loved one’s pain, our faces mirror their emotion. Butmunotes.in

Page 98

98
asfigure 6.3.1.A. shows, so do our brains. In this fMRI scan, the pain
imagined by an empathic romantic partner has triggered some of
the same brain activity experienced by the loved one actually
having the pain (Singer et al., 2004). Even fiction reading may
trigger such activity, as we m entally simulate the experiences
described (Mar & Oatley, 2008). The bottom line: Our brain’s mirror
neurons underlie our intensely social nature.
Figure 6.2: Pain Empathy
6.2.2Applications of Observational Learning :
From the basis of observational learning, we learn that there
are both negative and positive aspects towards observational
learning. Through positive learning, pro -social models have positive
effects. They are nonviolent and have a helpful influence. On the
other hand, there are antisoc ial models that have a negative effect,
arousing problems such as abuse in families and violence amongst
children. We would discuss in details.
Pro-Social Behaviour:
Pro-social (positive, helpful) models can have prosocial
effects. To encourage children to read, read to them and surround
them with books and people who read. To increase the odds that
your children will practice your religion, worship and attend religious
activities with them. People who exemplify nonviolently, helpful
behavior can prompt s imilar behavior in others. India’s Mahatma
Gandhi and America’s Martin Luther King, Jr., both drew on the
power of modeling, making the nonviolent action a powerful force
for social change in both countries. Parents are also powerful
models. Models are mos t effective when their actions and words
are consistent. Sometimes, however, models say one thing and do
another. Many parents seem to operate according to the principle
“Do as I say, not as I do.” Experiments suggest that children learn
to do both (Rice & Grusec, 1975; Rushton, 1975). Exposed to a
hypocrite, they tend to imitate the hypocrisy by doing what the
model did and saying what the model said.munotes.in

Page 99

99
Anti-Social Behaviour:
Observational learning may have antisocial effects. This
helps us understand why a busive parents might have aggressive
children, and why many men who beat their wives had wife
battering fathers (Stith et al., 2000). Critics note that being
aggressive could be passed along by parents’ genes. But with
monkeys, we know it can be environmen tal. In study after study,
young monkeys separated from their mothers and subjected to high
levels of aggression grew up to be aggressive themselves
(Chamove, 1980). Television is the easiest way to get influenced.
Imitation is one of the main roles. Telev ision and learning have a
positive relationship. TV is a powerful source of observational
learning. While watching TV, children may “learn” that bullying is an
effective way to control others, that free and easy sex brings
pleasure without later misery or disease, or that men should be
tough and women gentle.
6.2.3 Thinking critically about: Does viewing media violence
trigger violent behaviour?
The average American child watches more than 4 hours of
television every day, and 2 out of 3 of the programs th ey watch
contain aggression. It has been estimated that by the age of 12, the
average American child has seen more than 8,000 murders and
100,000 acts of violence. At the same time, children are also
exposed to violence in movies, video games, and virtual reality
games, as well as in music videos that include violent lyrics and
imagery (The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2003;
Schulenburg, 2007; Coyne & Archer, 2005). The most important
thing is that India is not exception to this scenario.
It might n ot surprise you to hear that these exposures to
violence have an effect on aggressive behavior. The evidence is
impressive and clear: The more media violence people, including
children, view, the more aggressive they are likely to be (Anderson
et al., 2003 ;C a n t o re ta l . ,2 0 0 1 ) .T h er e l a t i o nb e t w e e nv i e w i n g
television violence and aggressive behavior is about as strong as
the relation between smoking and cancer or between studying and
academic grades. People who watch more violence become more
aggressive th an those who watch less violence.
It is clear that watching television violence can increase
aggression, but what about violent video games? These games are
more popular than ever, and also more graphically violent. Youths
spend countless hours playing t hese games, many of which involve
engaging in extremely violent behaviors. The games often require
the player to take the role of a violent person, to identify with the
character, to select victims, and of course to kill the victims. These
behaviors are re inforced by winning points and moving on to higher
levels, and are repeated over and over. Again, the answer is clearmunotes.in

Page 100

100
playing violent video games leads to aggression. A recent meta -
analysis by Anderson and Bushman (2001) reviewed 35 research
studies that h ad tested the effects of playing violent video games
on aggression. The studies included both experimental and
correlational studies, with both male and female participants in both
laboratory and field settings. They found that exposure to violent
video ga mes is significantly linked to increases in aggressive
thoughts, aggressive feelings, psychological arousal (including
blood pressure and heart rate), as well as aggressive behavior.
Furthermore, playing more video games was found to relate to less
altruis tic behavior.
However, although modeling can increase violence, it can
also have positive effects. Research has found that, just as children
learn to be aggressive through observational learning, they can
also learn to be altruistic in the same way (Seym our, Yoshida, &
Dolan, 2009).
6.3 SUMMARY
In this unit we studied the relationship Biology, Cognition and
learning. Learning is an important form of new behaviour. It
involves establishing new associations and permanent change in
behaviour. Putting the terms cognition and learning together gives a
definition of cognitive learning. A change in the way of information
is processed as result of experience a person or animal has had. In
other words, due to past experiences, the significance and meaning
of eve nts have been changed, new associations have been formed
and these changes have been stored in the memory for future use.
Obviously, much learning is of the cognitive variety. Indeed, as you
read this text, we hope you are doing some cognitive learning.
We have briefly discussed observational learning. The
pioneer of the school of behavioral psychology John B. Watson,
who himself was very much influenced by Ivan Pavlov’s work.
Questioning Wundt’s attempt to analyze consciousness into all its
basic parts, Watson insisted on objectivity and he considered only
behaviour that consisted of observable stimuli and response to be
worthy of investigations, The cognitive school of psychology was
founded by Max Wertheimer who felt that, Wundt in order to
produce his neat atomic chart of psychology, had lost sight of the
reality of human experience.
Observational learning is learning by observing the behavior
of others. Observational learning is useful for animals and for
people because it allows us to learn without having to actually
engage in what might be a risky behaviormunotes.in

Page 101

101
Towards the end of the chapter we have discussed the
effects of violence on aggression. It might not surprise you to hear
that these exposures to violence have an effect on aggressive
behavior. T he more media violence people, including children,
view, the more aggressive they are likely to be(Anderson et al.,
2003; Cantor et al., 2001). It is clear that watching television
violence can increase aggression. Although modeling can increase
violence, it can also have positive effects. Research has found that,
just as children learn to be aggressive through observational
learning, they can also learn to be altruistic in the same way
(Seymour, Yoshida, & Dolan, 2009).
6.4 QUESTIONS
a)Explain the relatio nship between Biology, Cognition, and
Learning.
b)Explain cognition’s influence on conditioning.
c)Explain Mirror neurons and imitation in the brain
d)What is Pro-social behaviour?
e)What is Anti -Social Behaviour?
f)Explain observational learning.
g)Explain applicati ons of observational learning.
h)Explain the Effects of Violent TV programs on Aggression?
6.5 REFERENCES
Myers, D. G. (2013). Psychology .10thedition; International edition.
New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint 2013 .
Baron, R. A., &Kalsher, M . J. (2008). Psychology: From Science to
Practice. (2nd ed.). Pearson Education inc., Allyn and Bacon
Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2008). Psychology. (Indian sub -
continent adaptation). New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) pvt ltd.
Ciccarelli, S. K. , & White, J. N. (2012). Psychology. 3rdedi. New
Jersey: Pearson education.
munotes.in

Page 102

102Unit -7
MEMORY -I
Unit Structure :
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Studying Memory
7.3 Memory Models –Information Processing Models
7.4 Building Memories -Encoding and Automatic Processing ,
Encoding and Effortful Processing
7.5 Summary
7.6 Questions
7.7 References
7.0OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able –
To understand the importance of studying the topic of memory
To understand how memories are formed and stored
To understand how memorization can be improved
7.1INTRODU CTION
Memory is a fundamental component of daily life and life
without memory would be close to impossible. Our very survival
depends on our ability to remember who we are, who others are,
our past experiences, our learning to cope with our environment,
skills that we have learned. what is dangerous, what is safe, etc. If
we don’t have memory then everyone else would be a stranger to
us, in fact, we will not be able to recognize ourselves also when we
look into a mirror, every day every task will be new fo r us, every
place will be new for us and living a normal routine life will be
impossible. We use memory at every moment of our lives, either
consciously or unconsciously. For example, r ight now, while typing
the words I’m writing, I’m using my memory of the alphabets, words
and their meanings that I have learned in my childhood .M yb r a i n is
focuse don the content, but while I’m doing that, I’m not recalling
how to type on a conscious level. So, let us explore together this
fascinating subject.munotes.in

Page 103

1037.2 STUDY INGMEMORY
David Myers (2013) refers to memory as the persistence of
learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.
Baron defined memory as “an ability of the brain to retain
and later retrieve information”.
“Memory is an active s ystem that receives information from
senses, organizes and alters that information as it stores it away,
and then retrieves the information from storage” Ciccarelli & Meyer
(2008)
Psychologists use three ways to find out that learning has
taken place and memory’s dominant role in these three ways is
obvious. These three ways are–
1.Recall: This process involves retrieving or bringing back
previously learned information ,t h o u g h to ri d e a , that is not in our
immediate conscious awareness but that we had store di no u r
memory. For example, when you are answering an essay type
of question or fill in the blank type of question in exam, you are
recalling information that you have stored in memory previously.
2.Recognition: In recognition, you only need to identify
previously learned information, e.g., while answering multiple
choice questions in exam, various possible answers are given
along with the question and you are merely recognizing the
correct answer out of those various options. Recognition is
much easier t han recall.
3.Relearning: Relearning refers to learning something more
quickly when you learn it a second time. It is a way of measuring
retention of information stored in memory. For example, while
prepar ingfor exam, it may take you two hours to learn thi s
lesson . After a gap of two months, suppose you feel that you
need to learn it again as you are not able to recall it perfectly.
This time, it will take you much less time to relearn it because it
is already there in your memory.
Psychologists have con ducted many empirical studies to
understand the phenomenon of memory. For instance,
psychologists have been intrigued to find that memory gets affected
by biological and environmental occurrences such as stroke,
accidents, traumas, etc. For instance, Myers (2013) observed that
people who suffer stroke may have warm personality as before and
may be able to do every day routine work, they may indulge in
enjoyable recollection of past events but they can’t remember new
memories of everyday happening. Such a pe rson may not be ablemunotes.in

Page 104

104to recall what he had for lunch or the name of the person whom he
had met just half an hour back. Similarly, there are others, who
cannot remember past events from their lives after an accident or a
trauma.
Another interesting obser vation brought up by empirical
research is that though most of the people have to put in
considerable effort to learn a series of information or notes, on the
other hand, there are few peop le, who can remember such details
even by listening it or seeing it just once. Moreover, such people,
might be able to recall these numbers or words, backward as easily
as forward. Studies showed that such people could recall correctly
the series of these numbers or words and the details of the setting
in which they were first exposed to these series (such as the room
layout and the clothes worn by the experimenter) ,e v e na f t e rm a n y
years.
However, even in case of people with ordinary memory,
Konkle et.al. ( 2010) reported that people who were exposed to 2800
images for only 3 seconds each, could spot the repeats with 82%
accuracy. In another experiment, Mitchell(2006) found that people
who had seen a picture, 17 years back, could recognize the that
picture correctly even when they were shown that picture in
fragmented fo rm.
Every day, we are exposed to countless images, voices,
sounds, tastes, smells, textures, places, faces, etc. The question
arises, how does our brain choose information out of this vast
expanse of information and store that information away for later
use? How can we recollect information we have not thought about
for years? How exactly memories are formed and stored? Let us try
to get answers for some of these questions in the further part of this
unit.
7.3 MEMORY MODELS:
Psychologists have develop ed memory models to explain
how our brain forms and retrieves memories. Here we are going to
talk about variou s information processing models.
Information Processing M odels:
Following are the three important Information Processing models .
Computer func tioning and human memory
Connectionism
Richard Atkinson & Richard Shiffrin’s Three Stage Model.munotes.in

Page 105

1057.3.1 Computer functioning and human memory:
This information processing model isbased on the
assumption that human memory can be compared to a computer’s
operations . Like the computer, the human mind takes in
information, performs operations on it to change its form and
content, stores the information and retrieves it when it is needed.
This entire operation is done in three step processes –
1.Encoding: The information gets in our brain in a way that
allows it to be stored.
2.Storage: The information is held in a way that allows it to be
retrieved later.
3.Retrieval: This refers to getting back theinformation at a later
stage, through reactivating and recalling t hat information and
producing it in a form similar to what was encoded.
However, there is a difference between computer functioning
and human memory -
I.Our memories are less literal ,more fuzzy and fragile than a
computer’s. Th at means that computer encodes the words
without assigning any meaning to them or using figures of
speech.
II.Most computers process information sequentially ,e v e nw h i l e
alternating between tasks. Our dual track brain processes
many things simultaneously, some of them unconsciously,
by me ans of parallel processing. In other words, computers
process one piece of data at a time, while human memory
can process a lot of information at the same time.
III.In computer, once a piece of information is stored, it will not
change one bit over the years. But in case of human
memory, memories will be continuously changed and
reconstructed in response .Unlike a computer, we are not
dealing with a physical limit of size. Humans are constantly
removing some of their stored information through disuse
and addin g some more information as they come across
new information.
7.3.2Connectionism :
Another information -processing model is called
connectionism . It is based on the view that memories are products
of interconnected neural networks. Specific memories arise from
particular activation patterns within these networks. Every time you
learn something new, your brain’s neural connections change,
forming and strengthening pathways that allow you to interact with
and learn from your constantly changing environment.munotes.in

Page 106

1067.3.3 Richard Atkinson & Richard Shiffrin’s A Three -Stage
Model:
Atkinson & Shiffrin ( 1968) model is the most popular model
based on information -processing concept explained above.
According to them memory -forming process passes through a
three -stage model . They proposed that information passes through
three stages before it is stored. (see Fig. 7.1) These are:
Sensory Memory :We first receive information from the
environment that needs to be remembered. Stimuli are recorded by
our senses and held briefly i n sensory memory.
Short –term Memory: Some of the information is process edinto
short –term memory and encode d through rehearsal .
Long -term Memory: Finally, the information is stored in long term
memory after being processed in short term memory. From long
term memory, it can be retrieved anytime when it is required.
Fig. 7.1
Dual -Track Memory :Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model emphasized
on storing information that we pay attention to or are aware of. But
other psychologists pointed out that our mind works on two tracks.
Some information skips conscious encoding in short term memory
and directly goes into storage, that is long term memory. This
automatic processing happens without our awareness .W ew i l l
discuss automatic processing in detail l ater on in this unit.
This is a brief description of three components of this model.
Now let us look at each component in detail.
Sensory Memory:
It is also called sensory register. It is the first and most
immediate form of memory that you have. It refers to an initial
encoding of sensory information that comes from environmental in
its raw form. For any information to enter our memory, it has to be
first picked up by our five senses, that is, taste, smell, sight, sound
and touch. The information rece ived from five sense organs lasts
from a fraction ofasecond to a few seconds. It is a system of
memory that holds information briefly, but long enough so that it
can be processed further. However, unless we pay attention to the
munotes.in

Page 107

107information coming through our senses, the sensation will decay
and be los ti m m e d i a t e l y .
Sensory memory allows individuals to retain impressions of
sensory information even after the original stimulus has ceased.
For example, while walking in a market and getting exposed to
many faces passing by, an individual may turn around, if he feels
that a familiar face has passed by, even though the image of that
person from his sensory memory has already faded away ,o ri fy o u
look at an object and then close your eyes, an icon, or fleeting
image will persist for one -half second afterwards. In other words,
sensory memory holds impressions briefly, it holds them long
enough so that series of perceptions are psychologically
continuous. Without sensory memory, a movie will look like a
sequenc e of still pictures.
Though this store is generally referred to as “the sensory
register” or “sensory memory”, it is actually composed of multiple
registers , one for each sense. Information is transferred to short
term memory only when attention is given to it. But there are two
types of sensory memory that a re most talked about. They are :
a)Iconic Memory:
The mental representations of visual stimuli are referred to
as icons (i.e., fleeting images). The sensory register that holds
icons is called icon ic memory. Iconic memories are accurate but
last for a few tenths of a second.
George Sperling (1960) conducted an experiment to show
the existence and length of iconic memory. The participants of the
experiment were asked to sit in front of a screen upo n which 9
letters (three rows of three letters each )a p p e a r e df o r only 1/20thof
a second. After the presentation, participants were asked to re calla
particular row of letters. Sperling used a tone, immediately after
presenting the nine letters, to indica te which row the participants
should recall. A high -pitched tone meant that the participants need
to recall the first row, a medium tone indicated to recall the middle
row and the low tone indicated to recall the last row. Without the
tone, people recalled about 50% of the letters; with the tone, recall
for any of the rows was typically 100%.
However, i t was found that if participants responded
immediately with 0 second delay after seeing the letters, they
remembered an average of nine letters. But if the re was a delay of
merely 0.5 seconds , they could recall only six letters and if there
was a delay of 1.0 seconds, they could recall an average of only 4
letters , showing that all nine letters were momentarily available in
their sensory memory.munotes.in

Page 108

108b)Echoic M emory :
The mental representations of auditory stimuli are called
echoes. echoic memory is a form of sensory memory that holds
auditory information for one or two seconds .For example, if you are
watching T.V. and your mother asks you a question. You stop
watching T.V. and ask, “What did you say?”. The moment you say
this, you realize that you can recall your mother’s exact words. You
can recall these words because they are still in your echoic
memory. The memory traces of auditory stimuli can last for much
longer than the traces of visual stimuli. Echoic memory can last for
3t o4 seconds. Echoic memory also lets you hold speech sounds
long enough to identify them as words. Yet, echoes like icons will
fade with the passage of time. If they are to be retained ,w en e e dt o
pay attention to them. By selectively attending to certain stimuli, we
sort them out from the background noise.
The main functions of sensory memory can the n be described as:
i)Sensory memory prevents us from being overwhelmed by many
thousan ds of incoming stimuli. All incoming sensory information
will vanish within seconds unless we attend to it.
ii)Sensory memory gives us the time that we need to decide
whether or not the incoming data should be processed further.
iii)Iconic memory provides stabili ty and makes visual world appear
smooth and continuous and echoic memory allows us to play
back information and recognize words.
Short -term Memory (STM ):
Of the thousands of visual and auditory sensations, only a
small percentage gets automatically trans ferred into short -term
memory. Short term memory can hold a limited amount of
information for a short period of time which can be lengthened if the
information is rehearsed. Information held in STM is active
information, that is, information to which you a re paying attention.
Without rehearsal, short term memory can hold information
for only 2 seconds to 30 seconds. To show this, Lloyd Peterson and
Margaret Peterson conducted an experiment. Participants were
asked to remember three consonant groups such as CHJ. To
prevent rehearsal, the participants were asked to start at 100 and
count aloud backwards by threes. Participants were then tested at
various times for recall. After 3 seconds, they were asked to stop
counting backward and recall the consonants t hat they were
shown, they could recall only half of them , and after 12 seconds
most memory of the consonants had decayed and could not be
recalled . This clearly showed that without active processing
(rehearsal) short term memory has limited life.munotes.in

Page 109

109Short -term memory can hold about seven items, give or take
two. If nothing distracts us, we can recall seven items. In other
words, short term memory holds about 5 -9i t e m sa to n et i m e . The
capacity differs depending upon age and other factors. Experiments
have de monstrated that compared with children and older adults,
young adults have more working memory capacity .T h a tm e a n s
that young adults can do multitasking more efficiently than other
two groups. However, people from all age groups can do better and
more eff icient work when there are no distractions and they are
focused on one task at a time.
Working Memory:
The terms working memory and short -term memory are
sometimes used interchangeably. Working memory refers to the
active, conscious manipulation of temp orarily stored information .
Working memory is where active thinking takes place. The term
working memory emphasizes the fact that short -term memory is not
merely a box into which information is placed but is a working ,
active system that focuses on the m anipulation of information that it
contains at any given moment.
Cowan (2008) held that working memory capacity reflects
intelligence level and an ability to maintain focus. People with good
working memory are less likely to report than others that their mind
was wondering.
Alan Baddeley et.al. (2001;2002) challenged Atkinson and
Shiffrin’s view of short term memory as a small, brief storage space
for recent thoughts and experiences. Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
developed an alternative model of short -term memory which they
called working memory. They argue that the picture of short -term
memory ( STM ) provided by the Multi -Store Model is far too simple.
According to Atkinson and Shiffri n’s model ,S T Mh o l d sl i m i t e d
amounts of information for short periods of time with relatively little
processing. This means it is a single system or store without any
subsystems.
They stated that working memory is not just a temporary
shelf for holding i ncoming information. It is an active desktop where
your brain processes information, making sense of input and linking
it with long -term memories. In other words, the short -term memory
is working in many ways. It holds information not just to rehearse it
for storage but also to process it,for example, hearing a word
problem in math, keeping it in mind and solving the problem in
head. Let us take another example, the pages that you are reading
right now are entering your working memory through vision .Y o u
might also repeat the information using auditory rehearsal. As you
integrate this visual input with your long -term memory, yourmunotes.in

Page 110

110attention is focused. Baddeley (1998,2002) called this focused
processing the central executive. ( See Fig. 7.2)
Fig. 7.2
According to Baddeley the central executive is the most
important component of working memory. The central executive
decides what working memory pays attention to. Central executive
acts more like a system which controls attentional processes rather
than as a memory store. Without focused attention, information
often fades.
Sparrow et.al. (2011) empirically showed that people invest less
energy in remembering the information if they know that information
is available online. One can say, sometimes Google replaces
rehearsal and mobile phone replaces remembering phone numbers
of even family and friends.
Long Term Memory (STM):
Long -term memory (LTM) is the final stage of the multi -store
memory model proposed by Atkinson & Shiffrin. Theoretically, th e
capacity of LTM is unlimited. If we are not able to recall any
information, it is due to accessibility and not due to availability.
Encoding in LTM, generally, can be in semantic (meaning) mode
and visual (pictorial) mode but it can be in acoustic mode a lso.
There are thre e types of long term memories:
Procedural Memory
Semantic Memory
Episodic Memory
Procedural memory :It is responsible for knowing how to do
things. It is involved in motor skills. It is at unconscious level,
automatic and declarative.
Semantic memory :I tis responsible for storing information about
the world and involves knowledge about the meaning of words, as
well as general knowledge.
munotes.in

Page 111

111Episodic memory :Itis responsible for storing information about
events that we have experienced in our lives. It involves conscious
thoughts and is declarative.
We have discussed LTM in detail in building memories,
encoding and effortful processing, and levels of processing.
Check your Progress:
Write a short note on
a.)Information processing mode ls with reference to comparison
with computers and as connectionism views.
b.)Sensory memory
c.)Short term memory
d.)Working memory
7.4 BUILDING MEMORIES
7.4.1 Encoding and Automatic Processing:
The facts and experiences that we consciously know and
declare ar e part of explicit memories and are called declarative
memor y.
The content that we retain without conscious recollection is part
of implicit memories and is called non -declarative memory. Our
implicit memories include :
a.)Procedural memory for automatic sk ills such as how to swim,
drive a car, eat ing,typing on keyboard etc.
b.)Classically conditioned association among stimuli. For
example, you experience fear when you visit a dentist’s clinic
because you automatically link a dentist’s clinic with painful dr ill
and when you visit a dentist’s clinic, you have sweaty palm. You
did not plan to feel fear but it happens automatically. Another
example can be a pleasant smell that triggers the thoughts of a
favorite place.
It has been observed that people absorb some information
without paying attention to it. Some forms of processing take effort
but over time and with experience, becomes automatic. Many skills
are developed like this. For example, without conscious effort you
automatic ally process information abou t:
Space:
While reading a textbook, you often encode the place on a
page where certain material appears; later, when struggling to
recall information, you may visualize its location. Similarly, youmunotes.in

Page 112

112visualize a road map when you are giving directions to a person for
any destination. Another example can be being able to visualize
where things are after walking through a room.
Time:
While going about your day, you unintentionally note the
sequence of the day’s events. Later, when you realize that you left
your purse somewhere, you re -create the sequence of what you did
that day and retrace your steps.
Frequency:
You effortlessly keep track of how many times things
happen, thus enabling you to realize “this is the fifth time I have
come across this beggar t oday”.
As mentioned before, we have two track mind that engages
in vast information processing in a very impressive and efficient
way. One track automatically stores many routine details while the
other track focuses on conscious effortful processing. So ,l e tu s
now look at effortful processing.
7.4.2 Encoding and Effortful Processing:
Automatic processing happens so effortlessly that it is
difficult to shut off. For example, you automatically wake up at 5
O’clock in the morning, even if you forget to se tu pt h ea l a r m .
Automatic processing does not require attention or effort. Things
happen subconsciously. However, effortful processing requires
conscious processing. The learning requires a lot of effort and
thought so that it can be stored. Most new or co mplex tasks require
undivided attention and utilize effortful processing. Once the task is
learned, it becomes part of automatic processing. For example,
consider learning to drive a car; at first, drivers intensely grip the
steering wheel and pay undivide da t t e n t i o nt ot h er o a da h e a d .B u t
with experience and practice, as they get used to driving, they
relegate some part of driving, such as when to press brake or hour
much to press accelerator to automatic processing. This helps the
driver to do other tasks such as changi ng the music CD .
Same is true for other skills such as learning to read, write or
speak a new language, singing, playing cricket, gymnastics, etc.
The basic principle being that when the task is new we need to use
effortful processing to p ut it in memory and once it is learned
properly, we use automatic processing and perform that task
without paying conscious effort to it.
Effortful Processing Strategies:
Committing new information to memory requires efforts just
as learning a concept fr om a textbook. Empirical studies have
shown that many strategies can be used to increase our ability tomunotes.in

Page 113

113form new memories. Whether we will be able to recall this new
information from our long -term memory depends upon how
successfully we have used these str ategies. If these strategies are
used effectively, they lead to durable and accessible memories.
Let us look at some of the strategies thatcan be used to remember
new information.
1.Chunking:
George Miller was the first one to use the concept of
chunk ing in 1950s to increase STM. People can group information
into familiar manageable units to expand their short -term memory
capacity called “chunking”. In other words, chunking is a term
referred to the process of taking individual pieces of information
(chunks) and grouping them into larger units. A chunk is a
collection of elements having strong association with elements of
other chunks of information. Chunking usually occurs so naturally
that we take it for granted. We can remember information best
when we can organize it into personally meaningful arrangements .
Chunking can be based on:
Language patterns, for example, RATSHOEL ACE can be
chunked as RAT SHOE L ACE . A paragraph can be chunked
into phrases and sentences. To learn a song or a poem, you
break it into pieces of three lines or four lines and learn it, once
you have mastered each piece you link it again in proper
sequence. A shopping list can be broken down into smaller
groupings based on whether the times on the list are
vegetables, fruits, dai ry or grains.
Random digits are best chunked into groups of about three
items . The most common example of chunking occurs in phone
numbers. For example, if you think of a telephone number as
one large piece of information, then to easily remember this
number such as 8082892988, you can break it down to 808
289 29 88
In nutshell, to use chunking technique effectively, you must use
practice, look for connections, associate groups of items to things
from your memory and of course use other memory strate gies,
such as mnemonics, along with chunking.
2.Mnemonics:
Ancient Greek scholars and orators used Mnemonics to
encode lengthy passages and speeches. Mnemonics are memory
aids (such as images, maps, peg –words, etc.) that use vivid
imagery. We are goo d at remembering mental pictures . It is easier
to remember concrete, visualizable words than abstract words.
Human mind more easily remembers spatial, personal, surprising,
physical humorous or otherwise relatable information rather thanmunotes.in

Page 114

114abstract or imper sonal information. Acronyms, rhyme or a jingle are
other mnemo nics often used.
An acronym is a word formed from the first letters or groups
of letters in a name or phrase. For example, UNICEF is an acronym
for The United Nations Children’s Fund, OCEAN is an acronym for
the big five personality traits -openness, conscientiousness,
extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism.
A rhyme is a saying that has similar terminal sounds at the
end of each line . Rhymes are easier to remember because they
can be sto red by acoustic encoding in our brains. For example, in
fourteen hundred and ninety -two Columbus sailed the Ocean Blue.
A peg word system refers to the technique of visually
associating new words with an existing list that is already
memorized along with numbers . A peg system is a technique for
memorizing a list of words that must be recalled in a particular
order. One can use several types of pegs together such as rhymes,
numbers, shapes and alphabets. So, a peg is a mental hook on
which you hang informat ion. For example, to learn numbers, you
associate each number with a word that rhymes with that number –
one-sun, two -shoe, three -tree, four -door, five -hive, etc.
3.Hierarchies:
Fig.7.3
Hierarchy is a way of organizing information for encoding.
When complex information is broken down into broad concepts and
further subdivided into categories and subcategories, it is called
hierarchy system. We are more likely to recall a concept if we
encode it in a hierarchy. For example, see the hier archy of the topic
that we are studying right now (Fig 7.3)
Gordon Bower et.al.(1969) conducted an experiment in
which words were presented either randomly or grouped in
categories such as minerals, animals, clothing, and transportation.
These words were presented for one minute each. It was found that
munotes.in

Page 115

115participants could recall two to three times better when words were
organized in categories rather than when presented randomly.
4.Distributed Practice:
More than 300 experiments over a century have show nt h a t
we can memorize better ,t h a ti sh a v eb e t t e rl o n g -term retention,
when our encoding is distributed over time rather than concentrated
at one particular time. This is called spacing effect. The spacing
effect was first noted by Herman Ebbinghaus in the late 1800s.
For memorizing any information, we use two types of
practices –mass practice and distributed practice.
Mass practice: Mass practice refers to a practice schedule in
which the amount of rest between practice sessions or trials is very
short. Mass practice is essentially cramming. Mass practice can
produce speedy short -term learning and feeling of confidence. But
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885) said that those who learn quickly also
forget quickly.
Distributed Practice: Distributed practice re fers to a practice
schedule in which the amount of rest between practice sessions or
trials is relatively long. As distributed practice takes longer in
absolute terms, individuals using this technique often falsely feel
that they are being less efficient.
Distributed practice is more likely to result in success;
however, it takes some maturity to be able to do a little bit each
day. For example, let us say there are two students preparing for
exam, having similar intelligence and abilities. One student stu dies
whole night before exam while another student has studied one
hour per day over six months, the second student will do better in
the exam than the one who studies for the whole night one day
before exam.
However, this does not mean that you need to study every
day. Memory researcher Harry Bahrick noted that the longer the
time between study sessions, the better the long -term retention will
be and the fewer sessions will be needed. After you have studied
long enough to master the material, further st udy becomes
inefficient. In other words, over learning or over memorizing is of no
use. It is better to use that extra reviewing time a day later if you
need to recall that information after 10 days or a month later if you
need to recall that information a fter 6 months. In other words, to
prepare for annual exam, it is better to study and memorize
material in consistent manner over the months rather than studying
in a crammed manner, in a month immediately before the exam.munotes.in

Page 116

116In fact, Harry Bahrick along with his three family members
conducted a 9-year long experiment. His conclusion was that if you
spread your learning over several months, rather than over a short
period, you can retain information for a life time.
Testing Effect: One effective way to distri bute practice is repeated
self-testing. Henry Roediger and Jeffrey Karpicke (2006) called
self-testing as testing effect. They stated that it is better to practice
retrieval (that is try to answer the questions about the material as in
exam) than merely to reread material. Just rereading material will
lull you into a false sense of mastery.
Levels of Processing:
Memory researchers believe that we process verbal
information at different levels, and the depth of our processing
affects our long-term retentio no ft h ei n f o r m a t i o n . The levels of
processing can be shallow and deep processing. Let us discuss
each one of them.
Shallow Processing: It encodes information at a very basic level
thatis memorizing the appearance or sound of words.
Deep Processing: Itencodes semantically. That means it -
Attaches meaning of the words,
Links them to existing memories, and
Uses self -reference effect, that is, people remember things that
are personally relevant to them.
The deeper (more meaningful) the processing, the better our
retention will be. Fergus Craik and Endel Tulving (1975) conducted
an experiment to investigate the effects of different types of
processing on recall. Participants were presented with words that
either were written in capital letters (appearan ce) or rhymed with
other words (sound) or fitted in a sentence (semantic). Results
showed that processing a word deeply, by its meaning
(semantically) produced better recognition of that word at a later
time than the shallow processing of words by attendin gt ot h e i r
appearance or sounds. This clearly shows that deeper levels of
processing based on meaning of information is better than
shallower recall method. It means that learning by rote or cramming
without understanding a lesson will not help in retaini ng it in long
term. To retain it in long term, you need to understand the meaning
of the material that you are studying and to related it with other
information that you already have.
Making Material Personally Meaningful:
We have difficulty in processin g and storing the information
that does not appear meaningful to us or does not relate to our
experiences. Ebbinghaus (1850 -1909) believed that compared tomunotes.in

Page 117

117learning material that appears to be nonsense to us,learning
meaningful material takes just 1/10thof the effort.
Wayne Wickelgren (1977) said “The time you spend thinking
about material you are reading and relating it to previously stored
material is about the most useful thing you can do in learning any
new subject matter”.
People remember informat ion significantly better when they
process that information in reference to themselves. The more it is
personalized, the better will be recall of that information. This is
called the self -reference effect. This tendency of self -reference
effect is especial ly strong in members of individualistic western
cultures (Symons & Johnson, 1997) .
There can be three explanations for self -reference effect –
1.Information relevant to self is processed more deeply and
rehearsed more often. May be due to better elaboration , such
information remains more accessible.
2.Information relevant to self leads to high arousal and that may
enhance memory.
3.People have special mechanism for encoding information
relevant to themselves.
Check your Progress:
Write short notes on
a.)Automa tic Processing of information
b.)Effortful processing of information and Dual track memory
c.)Chunking & Mnemonics
d.)Hierarchies & Distributed Practice
e.)Shallow processing and deep processing
7.5SUMMARY
In this unit, we began with why it is important to understa nd
human memory. Without memory, we cannot lead a normal life and
maybe we will not be human enough. Our entire learning depends
onmemory. We also looked at the three methods used by
psychologists to know that learning has taken place. These three
methods are recall, recognition and relearning. Research studies
have shown that it is easier to use recognition than recall to extract
any information from memory. Similarly, while relearning if we take
less time than previous attempt at learning, it shows bette rr e t e n t i o n
of the information.
Next, we looked at three information processing models -one
compared the functioning of human memory with the functioning of
computers, second one emphasized that theneural connections in
brain are different from the wires connecting different parts ofmunotes.in

Page 118

118computers. Whenever we learn something new, these neural
connections change. In other words, this model states that human
memory system is more dynamic than computers. The third model
isthe most popular model of understandin gh o wm e m o r i e sa r e
formed. This is Atkinson & Shiffrin's model of three stages. It
emphasizes that we have three types of memory systems -first one
being the sensory memory, which is the entry point of receiving
information from the environment. This act o fr e c e i v i n gi n f o r m a t i o n
can be at the conscious level or unconscious level. If attention is
paid to the information for sufficient time the information will go to
short term memory and if the information is processed there also
for sufficient time it will go to long term memory. However, we will
be discussing long term memory in next unit.
We elaborated on sensory memory by saying that
information is received through all five sense organs and we have
separate memory for each sense organ. The most promine nt ones
are Iconic memory -information received through eyes in the form
of visual stimuli, and echoic memory -information received through
ears in the form of auditory stimuli. Then we discussed short term
memory and working memory, emphasizing that short term memory
can hold on an average only seven items at a time and that too for
only 2 to 30 seconds depending upon the type of sensory
information received.
Working memory is also short -term memory only, except the
fact that it underlines the fact that short term memory is not merely
receiving the information and passing it on to long term memory, it
is actively manipulating the received information by understanding
the meaning of information received and linking it to information
already stored in long term memory.
Next, we talked about building memories where we said that
encoding can take place either automatically or through effortful
processes. Automatic processing takes place in procedural memory
or through classically conditioned association amon g stimuli. It is
also influenced by space, time and frequency.
Effortful processing is a conscious effort put in to memorize
some information and the techniques that can be used for that are
chunking, mnemonics, hierarchies and distributed practices.
We also discussed the levels of processing. There can be
shallow processing, when you don't pay attention to the meaning of
the information and there can be deep processing, when you pay
attention to the meaning of the information. Research studies have
shown that retention of information is better when people use deep
processing and when self -reference effect takes place, that is , they
getinformation that is related or relevant to them.munotes.in

Page 119

1197.6QUESTIONS
1.Explain in detail Atkinson and Shiffrin’s three –stage
information processing model of memory.
2.Discuss in detail short -term memory and working memory.
3.Distinguish between automatic and effortful processing of
information. What are some effortful processing strategies that
can help us remember new informati on?
7.7REFE RENCE
1)Myers, D. G. (2013). Psychology .10thedition; International
edition. New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint
2013
2)Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2008). Psychology. (Indian sub -
continent adaptation). New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) pvt
ltd.

munotes.in

Page 120

120Unit -8
MEMORY -II
Unit Structure :
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Memory Storage
8.3 Retrieval: getting information out
8.4 Forgetting
8.5 Memory Construction Errors
8.6 Improving Memory
8.7 Summary
8.8 Questions
8.9 References
8.0 OBJE CTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to understand
how explicit and implicit memories are stored in the brain
how retrieval takes place
the causes of forgetting
the techniques to improve memory
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In last unit, we mentioned t hat it is important to study
memory as it connects the present moment to what came before
and is the basis for the formation of one’s life story. Basically, we as
a person are derived from experiences that have been stored in our
long-term memory. Atkinson & Shiffrin’s three stage model stated
that from short term memory the information goes to long term
memory -its last destination. So, let us see briefly, what are the
characteristics of long -term memory. Long -term memory stores
memories for years and som etimes for entire life. Its capacity is
unlimited, but storing and retrieval of information depends upon
changes in neuronal structure. This physical change is relatively
permanent. Think of it, there is never a situation when a person
says I can’t learn a nything anymore in my life. If people sometimes
can’t retrieve memories that were stored in childhood, it only means
those memories are available in memory but not accessible. Non -
accessibility can be for various reasons, but memories are there.munotes.in

Page 121

121There are different types of long term memories such as
explicit memories ,implicit memories , flash bulb memories, etc.
After this short introduction to long term memory, let us see what
kind of physiological changes take place when we are processing
information a nd storing in long term memory and where it gets
stored. We will also discuss various techniques to retrieve the
information and how memory can be improved.
8.2MEMORY STORAGE
8.2.1 Retaining Information in the brain :
Initially, people believed that lo ng term memory is like an
empty room which has to be filled up with memories. It was also
believed that it does not have elasticity and has limited capacity, to
fill new information old information items need to be thrown out. But
later on, psychologists e mpirically showed that our long-term
memory is flexible and has endless capacity to store information.
However, we do not store information as books are stored in
libraries -carefully staked in distinctly labeled racks and having
precise locations. Inste ad, many parts of the brain interact as we
encode, store and retrieve the information from our memories.
Memories are not stored in any single site of the brain, instead they
are stored throughout the brain. To show that memories are not
stored in anysingle specific spot of the brain, Karl Lashley (1950)
conducted an experiment in which he trained rats to find their way
out of a maze. After that he surgically removed pieces of their
brain’s cortex and retested their memories. He found that no
matter what small brain section he removed, the rats always found
their way out of the maze, as they retained at least partial memory.
This indicated that while storing memories various parts of brain are
interacting. In fact, different parts of the brain are active in storing
different types of memories. Let us look at which parts are active for
implicit and explicit memories.
A)Explicit –Memory System: The Frontal Lobes and
Hippocampus
Explicit or declarative memory is one of the two main types
of long -term huma n memory. It stores facts, stories, meaning of the
words ,previous experiences and concepts that can be consciously
recalled .
The network that processes and s tores explicit memories
includes frontal lobes and hippocampus.
Frontal Lobes:
The frontal lobes are important in working memory. The left
and right frontal lobes process different types of memories. The left
frontal lobe is more active in memorizing verbal material, e.g., when
you recall a password and hold it in working memory, you are usingmunotes.in

Page 122

122the left frontal lobe. T he right frontal lobe is more active in recalling
non-verbal material, e.g., if you are recalling a party scene, or
thinking about a painting, you are using your right frontal lobe.
Hippocampus:
The hippocampus is a small, curved n eural center located in
the limbic system in each temporal lobe .I ti si n v o l v e di nt h e
formation of new memories and emotional responses .It instantly
evaluates incoming data from the five senses and decides whether
to store or discard the information. So,for the brain, it is equivalent
to “save button” in computer. Studies have shown that explicit
memories of names, images and events are lai dd o w nt h r o u g ht h e
hippocampus. Therefore, damage to hippocampus disrupts recall of
explicit memories. Just like hum ans, birds also have hippocampus
in their brains. It has been found that birds, with their hippocampus
intact, can store food in hundreds of places and can still find it
months later when they return to these unmarked hiding places. But
they can’t remember , where they had stored the food if their
hippocampus is damaged (Kaamil & Chang,2001) .S h e t t l e w o r t h
(1993) stated that among animals, a bird called Nutcracker can
locate 6000 pine seeds during winter season which it had buried
months back.
Furthermore, in case of human beings, it has been reported
that people cannot remember verbal information, if their left
hippocampus is damaged, but they have no difficulty in
remembering visual designs and locations. They cannot recall
visual designs and locations if their right hippocampus is damaged.
We would not be able to remember where our house is without the
work of the hippocampus.
Research has also found that different sub regions of the
hippocampus itself play important roles in certain types of memory.
Forexample, the rear part of the hippocampus is involved in the
processing of spatial memories. Studies of London cab drivers
have found that navigating complex mazes of big city streets is
linked to the growth of the rear region of the hippocampus.
(Maguire et.al.2003a) Another study reported that anterior
hippocampus is active when people learn to associate names with
faces (Zeineh et.al.,2003) and another part of hippocampus is
active when people use spatial mnemonics (Maguire et.al.,2003b).
The reason is that the left hippocampus is more involved in the
memory of facts, episodes, words; it is responsible for constructing
episodic memory. The right hippocampus is more involved in
spatial memory.
Memories are not permanently stored in hippocampus.
Events or episodes (such as its smell, feel, sound and location) are
held there temporarily for a couple of days before consolidating,munotes.in

Page 123

123moving to other parts of the brain for long -term storage. For
example, Tse et.al. (2007) showed in an experiment that if a rat’s
hippocampus is removed three hours after it has learnt the location
of some tasty food, it will not be able to locate food after the
operation, because its hippocampus did not get a chance to send
the information to different locations of long term memory. But if the
hippocampus us removed 48 hours after the rat has learned the
location of the tasty food, it could remember the location.
Much of this consolidation of memory occurs during sleep.
During deep sleep, the hippocampus processes memories for late r
retrieval. Other studies have shown that getting a full eight hours of
sleep after learning a new task, such as a finger -tapping exercise,
or after studying a long list of words can boost recall the next day.
Even a one -hour nap can improve performance o n certain tasks.
Researchers have watched the hippocampus and brain cortex
showing simultaneous activity rhythms during sleep, indicating as if
they are having a dialogue (Euston et.al.,2007). What happens is
that when you sleep at night, your brain “repl ays” the day’s events.
During these nightly recaps, hippocampus and the neocortex, “talk”
to one another and transfer day’s experiences to the cortex for
long-term storage. Cortex areas surrounding the hippocampus
support the processing and storing of expl icit memories. This
transfer of information from hippocampus to cortex is called
consolidation. In addition to strengthening memories, sleep can
also help integrate new information, leading to creative insight. In
one experiment, researchers showed how sl eep restructures
information to help subjects see new patterns, linking new
information with prior knowledge.
B)Implicit -Memory System: The Cerebellum and Basal
Ganglia –
Implicit memory is sometimes referred to as unconscious
memory or automatic memory orno declarative memory .As
mentioned before, implicit memory includes skills and habits,
conditioned associations , priming and perceptual learning .Even if
you lose your hippocampus and frontal lobe, you will still be able to
do many activities because of implicit memory.
No declarative memory is expressed through performance
rather than recollection. The unconscious status of no declarative
memory creates some of the mystery of human experience. Here
arise the habits and preferences that are inaccess ible to conscious
recollection, but they nevertheless are shaped by past events, they
influence our current behavior and mental life. For example,
LeDoux (1996) reported a case of a brain damaged patient who
suffered from amnesia and could not form immedia te memories.
Every day, her doctor shook her hand and introduced himself as
she could not form memories of the current events. One day whenmunotes.in

Page 124

124doctor shook hand with her, she suddenly pulled her hand back
with a jerk because doctor has a drawing board pin in his hand and
that had pricked her. The next day, when doctor returned to
introduce himself, she refused to shake his hand but she could not
explain why she was refusing to shake hand. She was classically
conditioned.
The cerebellum plays a very important role in formation and
storage of implicit memories created by classical conditioning. If
cerebellum is damaged, people cannot develop certain conditioned
reflexes, such as associating a tone with a bout to come puff of air
and thus do not blink in anticipa tion of the puff (Daum &
Schugens;1996) . Similarly, when researchers surgically disrupted
the function of different pathways in the cerebellum of rabbits, the
rabbits could not learn a conditioned eye blink response. It was also
reported that if cerebellum is damaged, voluntary motor movement
become slow and uncoordinated. It is clearly evident from these
experiments that cerebellum plays an important part in formation of
implicit memories.
A subset of implicit memory, procedural memory ,e n a b l e s
us to p erform many everyday physical activities, such as walking
and riding a bike, without having to give it thought. A large majority
of implicit memories are procedural in nature. Procedural memory
primarily depends on the cerebellum and basal ganglia. The bas al
ganglia aredeep brain structure sinvolved in motor movements and
memories of skills. The cerebellum plays a part in correcting
movement and fine tuning the motor agility found in procedural
skills such as painting, instrument playing and in sports such as
cricket, swimming, etc. Damage to this area may prevent the proper
relearning of motor skills.
The Basal Ganglia receives input from the cortex, but it does
not return the inputs to the cortex for conscious awareness of
procedural learning. For examp le, once you know how to ride a
bike, you never forget this skill, thanks to your basal ganglia. You
can ride the bicycle even if you can’t recall having taken the lesson
for this skill.
Infantile amnesia:
Implicit memory from infancy can be retained ri ght up to
adulthood, including skills and conditioned responses. However,
explicit memories such as our recall of episodes, goes back to
about age 3 for most people. This nearly 3 years “blank” in our
memories is called infantile amnesia. For example, in a n
experiment conducted by Bauer et.al. (2007), the events children
experienced and discussed with their mothers ,w h e nt h e yw e r e3
years old, they could recollect 60% of these events at the age of 7
but could recollect only 35% of these events at the age of 9. Thismunotes.in

Page 125

125demonstrated that as we grow old we can’t recollect the events that
took place either before or at the age of 3. The question arises, why
we can’t remember these evets that take place in infancy stage.
Psychologists have come up with two reasons f or it-
1.Encoding: Some psychologists believe that explicit memories in
childhood develop with language acquisition because the ability
to use words and concepts helps in memory retention. It is
believed that after developing linguistic skills, memories tha t
were not encoded verbally get lost within the mind. Another
explanation is that young children encode and store memory as
images or feelings. In adulthood, our language dominated
memories do not have retrieval cues appropriate for gaining
access to the s tored memory of childhood.
2.The hippocampus, that plays a significant part in explicit
memories, is one of the last brain structure to mature.
3.Still other psychologists believe that children younger than 3 or
4 do not perceive contexts well enough to stor em e m o r i e s
accurately.
8.2.2 TheAmygdala , Emotions, And Memory:
It is a common knowledge that generally we remember
emotionally charged events better than boring ones. The brain
region that is most strongly involved in emotional memory is the
amygdala. The question arises how does intense emotions cause
the brain to form intense memories? Psychologists say
1.Emotions can trigger a rise in stress hormones that influences
memory formation. Heightened emotions (stress related or
otherwise) make for stronger memories. Stress hormones make
more glucose energy available to fuel brain activity. In a way,
emotions trigger stress hormones telling the brain that
something important just happened.
2.These hormones tr igger activity in the amygdala and provoke it
to increase memory -forming activity in the frontal lobes and
basal ganglia and also to “tag” the memories as important. The
amygdala is critically involved in calculating the emotional
significance of events, and, through its connection to brain
regions dealin g with sensory experiences, also appears to be
responsible for the influence of emotion on perception -alerting
us to notice emotionally significant events even when we're not
paying attention. Emotional arousal can blaze certain events
into the brain, w hile disrupting memory of certain other neutral
events at the same time. As a result, the memories are stored
with more sensory and emotional details. These details can
trigger a rapid, unintended recall of the memory.munotes.in

Page 126

1263.Emotions often persist without our b eing consciously aware of
what caused them. For instance, in an experiment, patients with
damaged hippocampus (so that they could not form new explicit
memory) watched a sad film and later a happy film. After the
viewing, they did not consciously recall th e films, but the sad or
happy emotion persisted. (Feinstein et.al.,2010).
4.Stressful events can form very long -lasting memories.
Especially, traumatic events such as rape, house fire, terrorist
attack, etc. may lead to vivid recollection of the horrific eve nt
again and again. James Mc Gaugh (1994) noted that stronger
emotional experiences make for stronger, more reliable
memories. This helps in our survival also, because memory
serves to predict the future and alert us to future dangers.
5.Flashbulb memories: These tend to be memories of highly
emotional events. These events can be traumatic such as 9/11
terror attack, an earthquake, Tsunami, rape, news of a loved
one, etc. or it can be a pleasant but emotionally charged event,
such as first date outing. Typic ally, people can accurately recall -
Place ( where they were when the event happened ),
Ongoing activity (what they were doing ),
Own affect (the emotion they felt ),
Informant (who broke the news)
Others’ Affect (how others felt)
Aftermath (Importance of the e vent)
Flashbulb memories register like a photograph. It is as if the
brain commands, “Capture this”. People can recall them vividly and
with high confidence. However, as we relive, rehearse and discuss
them, these memories may get distorted as misinformat ion seeps
in.So,flashbulb memories are not as accurate as it was initially
thought.
8.2.3 Synaptic Changes:
When people form memories, their neurons release
neurotransmitters to other neurons across the synapses. With
repetition, the synapses undergo long-term potentiation (LTP) ,
that is, the signals are sent across the synapse more efficiently. It is
defined as a long-lasting increase in synaptic efficacy following high
frequency stimulation of presynaptic neurons.
Synaptic changes include a reductio ni nt h ep r o m p t i n g
needed to send a signal and an increase in the number of
neurotransmitter receptor sites. In other words, neurons can show
history -dependent behavior by responding differently as a function
of prior input, and this plasticity of nerve c ells and synapses is themunotes.in

Page 127

127basis of memory. Neurons that fire together wire together. It means,
through repeated pairing, there will be structural and chemical
changes that will result in strengthening of active synapses forming
a stronger circuit.
LTP occ urs throughout the brain, but a high concentration of
LTP occurs in the hippocampus and is believed to play a role in
learning and memories. Many experiments have proved that LTP is
a physical basis for memory. For instance –
1.Drugs that block LTP interfer e with learning Lynch & Staubli
(1991).
2.In an experiment, rats that were given a drug to increase their
LTP learned a maze with half of the usual number of mistakes
(Service, 1994).
3.When rats were injected with a chemical that could block the
preservation of LTP, rats’ immediate memories were erased
(Pastalkova et.al.2006). After LTP has occurred, if electric
current is passed through the brain, it won’t disrupt old
memories, but it will erase current memories. This is exactly
what happens when depressed people are given
electroconvulsive therapy or somebody gets hit very hard on the
head. For example, football players or boxers who become
temporarily unconscious after a hit by the opponent, typically
have no memory of what happened before the hit (yarnell &
Lynch, 1976).
4.Some pharmaceutical companies manufacture memory -
boosting drugs. These drugs are consumed by people suffering
from Alzheimer’s disease or having mild cognitive impairment
that may later on become Alzheimer’s disease, or simply by
people w ho are having age related memory decline. This
memory improving drugs are of two types –
a.)Drugs that enhance neurotransmitter glutamate.
b.)Drugs that improve production of CREB, a protein that
enhances the LTP process. Increased production of CREB
trigger s enhanced production of some other proteins that help in
reshaping synapse and transfer short term -memories into long -
term memories and patients who take these drugs show
enhanced learning.munotes.in

Page 128

128However, there are some people who wish to take drugs to
block the memories. These are the people who have gone through
traumatic experiences and do not want to go through the memories
of those events. A drug that helps in erasing such memories is
Propranolol. In an experiment, it was found that when victims of
traumatic event such as accident or rape were given this drug for
10 days immediately after the incident, it helped them to overcome
their experiences as after three months they did not show any sign
of stress disorder.
The following charts shows the summ ary of encoding of both
types of memories and how the brain stores memories in its two –
track system (See Fig. 8.1 & Fig. 8.2)
Fig.8.1
Fig.8.2
munotes.in

Page 129

1298.3RETRIEVAL: GETTING INFORMATION OUT
Measures of Retention:
There are th ree measures of retention –recall, recognition
and relearning speed. It is easier for us to recognize the information
than to recall. Our recognition memory is impressively quick and
vast. Our speed of relearning also indicates how much we have
learned. H erman Ebbinghaus showed this in his learning
experiments, using a nonsense syllables. He found that the more
times he practiced a list of nonsense syllables on day 1, the fewer
repetitions he required to retain it on day 2. Additional rehearsal
(over learn ing) of verbal information increases retention, especially
when practice is distributed over days.
Retrieval Cues :
Generally, it is believed that memory retrieval is a simple
process. Information has been stored in long term memory and can
be retrieved at will. But itis far from reality. Just because a memory
has been fully encoded is no guarantee that it can be retrieved and
applied at will, because memories are held in storage by a web of
associations, each piece of information interconnected with oth ers.
These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory. In
other words, memory is not stored as a file that can be retrieved by
searching alphabetically. Instead, it is stored as a web of
associations –conceptual, contextual and emotional.
One process that can improve the likelihood of remembering
previously learned knowledge isretrieval cues. Retrieval cues can
be defined as any stimulus or words that help us remember stored
memories (Goldstein, 2011).
Retrieval cues are clues or reminde rs which direct memory
search to the appropriate part of the LTM.
The more retrieval cues you have, the better will be your
chances of finding a route to your stored memory. Retrieval is good
when conditions favor rich and elaborate encoding because it
provides readily available retrieval cues. Retrieval cues can be
external such as place, color, sound that can help you to retrieve
the specific memories. For example, in various Hindi movies, we
have seen the use of external retrieval cue (such as a specif ic
shaped charm bracelet ,as o n g learned in childhood, etc.) being
used to trigger memories . Retrieval cues can be internal also such
as internal such as feelings of sadness that reminds you of some
unfortunate event in your life.
Priming:
Retrieval is affected by activation of our associations .
Priming triggers a thread of associations that bring us to a concept,munotes.in

Page 130

130just as a spider feels movement in a web and follows it to find the
bug. Our minds work by having one idea trigger another ;t h i s
maintains a f low of thought.
Priming has been called “invisible memory” , “memoryless
memory” because it affects us unconsciously. Priming is an implicit
memory effect in which exposure to one stimulus influences the
response to another stimulus. Priming influences ou rb e h a v i o r .F o r
example, Joly & Stapel (2009 ) empirically reported that Dutch
children primed with items associated with Santa Claus shared
more chocolate than did other children who were not primed with
Santa Claus. This is because Santa Claus is associat ed with
kindness and generosity and children who were primed with Santa
Claus were reminded of these qualities.
Priming effects are not always positive. We may have biases
and associations stored in memory that also influence our choices.
For example, V ohs (2006) showed that participants primed with
money related words were less likely to help another person when
asked to do so. Ariely (2009) explained these findings and said that
in such cases, money primes our materialism and self -
centeredness rather t han the social norm of helping.
Context -Dependent Memory:
Part of the web of associations of a memory is the context.
We retrieve a memory more easily when in the same context as
when we formed the memory. For example, words learned
underwater are better retrieved underwater. Students better on
tests if they study in the same place where they take the test.
Eyewitness can recollect better when they are taken back to the
scene of crime where they saw the crime occurring. A student may
go to a stationary sh op and may not remember what he wanted to
buy, but when he comes home and again sits on his study table, he
may recollect that he wanted to buy a specific pencil from the
stationary store.
When people visit their old school, they can recall memories
that they believed they had forgotten. This explains why people
experience the ‘flood’ of memories after revisiting their old school or
house after a gap of many years. When an individual moves to a
new location with different contextual information, rememberin ga n d
recalling information from this new environment may interfere with
the old memories and result in "forgetting". However, when
returning to the former location, the presence of contextual
information "reactivates" these old memories, allowing them to be
recalled, even after many years of absence. Experiments have
shown that a familiar context can activate memories even in 3-
month -oldinfants.munotes.in

Page 131

131State -Dependent Memory:
Unlike context –dependency memory, which involves an
individual's external environ ment and conditions, state -dependent
memory applies to the individual's internal conditions. Our
memories are not just linked to the external context in which we
learned them. Memories can also be tied to the emotional state we
were in when we formed the m emory.
State -dependent memory is the phenomenon through which
memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same
state of consciousness as they were when the memory was
formed . Alcohol -related state -dependent memory is known to occur
with humans as well as with animals . Heavy drinkers may forget
what they did while drunk, only to remember again the next time
they drink. For instance, someone who hides money when drunk
may forget the location until drunk again. Rats were taught to run a
maze under the influence of a depressant drug often forgot the
route through the maze if tested later without the drug. Given the
drug again, they could retrieve their memory and run the maze
successfully.
Similarly, emotions that accompany good or bad eve nts
become retrieval cues (Fiedler et.al. 2001). So, we can say that our
memories are mood congruent. Mood -congruent memory occurs
where current mood helps recall of mood -congruent material,
regardless of our mood at the time the material was stored. Thus,
when we are happy, we are more likely to remember happy events.
If you are in gloomy mood, you may recall other bad events from
your past .Research has shown that people put in a cheerful mood
–either through hypnosis or through positive events of the da y–
recalled the world in very positive terms. They judged themselves
as competent and effective and judged others as benevolent and in
general were optimistic about world’s future. This retrieval effect
helps to explain why our moods persist. When happy, we recall
happy events and therefore see the world as happy place and our
happy mood prolongs and vice versa.
This clearly indicates that our moods color our thinking.
When we feel happy, we think happy. We see and recall a good
world. When our mood is gloomy, our thoughts switch to a different
track. The bad mood primes our recollection of negative events.
Our relationships seem to sour, our self -image plunges, our hopes
for the future dim and other people’s behavior seems sinister. As
depression increa ses, memories and expectations dive down. It
was found that currently depressed people recall their parents as
having been rejecting and punitive. But formerly depressed people
recall their parents in the same positive terms as do never
depressed people (L ewinsohn & Rosenbaum, 1987).munotes.in

Page 132

132Similarly, Bornstein et.al.(1991) reported that adolescents’
ratings of their parental warmth differed from time to time
depending upon their mood. When teens were depressed or in low
mood, they rated their parents as inhuman and when their mood
brightened up, they rated their parents as angels. This indicates
that our perception of reality changes depending upon our changing
moods. We change our judgments , memories, interpretations of a
situation depending upon our moods. For instance, when we are in
bad mood and we find a person is constantly looking at us, we may
interpret it as a glare and feel even worse and avoid that person.
On the other hand, when we are in good mood and we find a
person constantly looking at us, we may interpret it as interest and
feel even better and strike a conversation with him.
The serial Position Effect:
Priming and context cues are not the only factors which
make memory retrieval selective. The serial position effect refers to
the tendency toretrieve items at the beginning and at the end of a
long list. This happens due to the primacy effect (items at the
beginning of the list) and recency effect (items at the end of the
list).Memory researchers explain that the primacy effect happens
because information encoded earlier has more time and opportunity
to be rehearsed and elaborated in short -term memory, has less
competition in working memory, and has a higher chance of getting
stored in long -term memory. On the other hand, the recency effect
happ ens because information encoded later is still undergoing
rehearsal in working memory, and is therefore readily available for
recall.
Check your Progress:
Write short notes on
a.)Explicit memory
b.)Implicit memory
c.)Synaptic changes
d.)Infantile amnesia
e.)Retrieval c ues
8.4 FORGETTING
People often feel that it will be wonderful to have a brain that
won’t forget anything that it is exposed to. There will be no need to
memorize anything. The question arises is it really a good idea. In
fact, the research shows that fo rgetting has its own advantages. If
we remembered everything that we came across, we could not
prioritize the important memories. We might have difficulty thinking
abstractly and making connections if our brain was devoted to
compiling isolated bits of inf ormation. If we were unable to forget,
we might not focus well on current stimuli because of intrusivemunotes.in

Page 133

133memories such as traumatic or discouraging memories.
“Forgetfulness is a form of freedom.” (Khalil Gibran)
8.4.1 Forgetting and the two -track mind :
While it is true that forgetting has its own advantages as
mentioned above, the fact remains that for some people memory
loss can be severe and permanent affecting their day to day life.
There are two types of such severe memory losses called
anterograde amn esia and retrograde amnesia.
Anterograde amnesia :Itrefers to an inability to form new long -
term declarative/explicit memories from a particular date, usually
the date of an accident or operation of the brain. It is an inability to
transfer new informa tion from the short -term memory to long -term
memory. The brain damage can be caused by stroke, head trauma,
or surgery.
Retrograde amnesia :Itis a loss of memory -access to events that
occurred, or information that was learned, before an injury or the
onset of a disease. People suffering from retrograde amnesia
cannot recall their past –the old memories stored in long term
memory that were stored before the injury, but they can form new
memories and store them in long term memory. Generally, the
memory l oss is not for the individual’s entire lifetime. InaH i n d i
movie Sadma ( 1983), Shridevi competently essayed the role of a
retrograde amnesia patient.
As an example of anterograde amnesia, Dittrich (2010)
reported a case of Henry Molaison (called H.M. in short) who used
to suffer from seizures and to stop his seizures, doctors conducted
a brain surgery. After brain surgery, H.M. developed severe
anterograde amnesia. Hewas unable to form new conscious
memories , though his working memory and procedural mem ory
were intact. His memory prior to operation was intact. He could
remember much of his childhood, he knew his name and family
history. He was intelligent and did daily crossword puzzles, but he
forgot daily events nearly as fast as they occurred. He
underestimated his own age, apologized for forgetting the names of
persons to whom he had just been introduced. His doctor Corkin
(2005) said “I’ve known H.M. since 1962, and he still does not know
who I am”. For about 20 seconds during conversation he could
keep something in mind. When distracted, he would lose what was
just said or what had just occurred. So he could never learn how to
use a TV remote.
Similarly, Oliver Sacks reported the case of Jimmie, who
was suffering from anterograde amnesia. He had n o sense of how
much time has passed after he suffered his injury at the age of 19
in 1945. When he was 49 years old and doctor asked himhis age ,munotes.in

Page 134

134he replied that he was 19years old . Doctor placed a mirror before
himand asked himto say what he could see . Jimmie was shocked
by his appearance in the mirror and became frantic. He asked is it a
nightmare, or a joke? When his attention was diverted to some
children playing outside the room, his panic ended and he totally
forgot about seeing himself in the mir ror. Even more interesting was
that when Sacks left the room and returned a few minutes later
Jimmy had no memory of ever meeting the doctor.
The strange facts about patients such as H.M., Jimmie and
others like them are that they can learn nonverbal tas ks. They can
find their way to the bathroom, but if you ask them to explain where
is the bathroom, they will not be able to tell you. They can learn to
read mirror image writing and solve jigsaw puzzle and many other
complicated job skills. They can be cla ssically conditioned, but they
do all these things with no awareness of having learned them. That
means their automatic processing ability is intact and they can form
new implicit memories, but they lose their explicit memory as they
cannot consciously rec all learning of these new skills .These
examples confirm that we have two distinct memory systems,
controlled by different parts of the brain.
8.4.2 Reasons for Forgetting
Encoding Failure:
As discussed previously, whatever is not encoded and
passed on to long term memory will never be remembered by us.
Very often we hear people saying that with age they have become
more forgetful. Research studies have also shown that with
advancing age our encoding efficiency reduces. The brain areas
that are instantly active when young adults encode new information
become less responsive as we grow old. However, no matter what
our age is, we are selective while paying attention to and encoding
information that continuously keeps bombarding us. For example,
we have seen many coins in our life time , we can recall their size,
shape and color but if I ask you to recall what is engraved on head
side and what is engraved on tail side or can you differentiate a
fake coin from a real one, the chances are the most people cannot
do that. But a coin collector will be able to differentiate a fake coin
from a real one and will remember the details engraved on the
head and tail side of the coin. This is because a coin collector will
encode the important features of the coins to his me mory through
effortful processing. He would have paid close attention to those
features and that must have facilitated in encoding that information
and storing in long -term memory. Without putting effort, many
potential memories are never formed.
Stora geDecay:
Very often we can’t recollect information despite putting
effort in encoding it. For example, you must have learned certainmunotes.in

Page 135

135study material for your exam last year and must have successfully
reproduce in the exam, but if I ask you to recall it now ,t h ec h a n c e s
are that you will not be able to recall it. Memories are lost over time.
To study the duration of stored memories, Ebbinghaus (1885)
learned lists of nonsense syllables and measured how much he
retained while relearning each list, from 20 min utes to 30 days later.
He found that the course of forgetting was initially rapid and then
leveled off with time. Harry Bahrick (1984) conducted a similar
experiment with students learning Spanish in school. He found that
compared to those who were just fi nishing school, people who
passed out from school 3 years back had forgotten much of what
they had learned in school but whatever they could remember at
that time (after this lapse of 3 years) they could recall after 25 years
later also. Their forgetting h ad leveled off.
One of the reasons for this leveling off in forgetting can be that
physical memory traces fade gradually. Memories may be
inaccessible for various reasons such as –
a.)Some memories were never acquired/ not encoded ,e . g,m a y b e
we never pai d attention to the details of the coin, or even if paid
attention to it enough to get it into our working memory, maybe
we still didn’t bother to rehearse it and encode it into long term
memory.
b.)Some memories are discarded, that is, stored memories decay ,
memory encoded into long -term memory will decay if the
memory is never used, recalled and re -stored.
c.)Some memories we are not able to retrieve.
Retrieval Failure –Tip of the Tongue:
a.)Very often forgetting takes place not because memories have
faded but because we are unable to retrieve them. For example,
try to recall a song that was your favorite 15 years back but after
that you have not heard it again or sang it again. You will find it
difficult to recall its lyrics . You feel the lyrics on the tip of your
tongue but just not able to say it. You will hum the tune but not
able to get the lyrics. But if somebody else gives you a clue
such as first few words, you will be able to recall that song. This
is called Tip -of-the-Tongue phenomenon.
b.)To prevent ret rieval failure when storing and rehearsal
memories, you can build retrieval cues such as linking your
memorized material to images, rhymes, categories, initials, lists,
etc.
Interference :
Sometimes retrieval problem occurs due to interference. Old
and ne w memories can interfere with each other, making it difficult
to store new memories and retrieve old ones. There are two types
of interferencemunotes.in

Page 136

136Proactive Interference: Itoccurs when past information interferes
(in a forward -acting way) with learning new i nformation. You have
many strong memories of a previous teacher, and this memory
makes it difficult to learn the new teacher’s name. Or if you change
your password on your email account after a long time, your
memory of old password may interfere with reme mbering the new
password.
Retroactive Interference: Itoccurs when new stimuli/learning
interferes with the storage and retrieval of previously formed
memories. For example, if you hear a new song set on the tune of
an old song, you may have trouble recal ling the words of old song.
Studies have shown that information presented just before the eight
hours sleep is protected from retroactive interference because the
chances of interference are minimized. This was first discovered by
John Jenkins and karl Dal lenbach (1924) in an experiment .T h e y
asked two people to memorize nonsense syllables and then try to
recall them after 8 hours of being awake or asleep at night. This
exercise was for many days. It was found that forgetting occurred
more rapidly after bei ng awake and being involved in other daily
activities than for those who slept after memorizing the list. This
clearly shows that “forgetting is not so much a matter of the decay
of old impressions and associations as it is a matter of interference,
inhibi tion or obliteration of the old by the new.” karl Dallenbach
(1924).
This, however, does not mean that you should commit
information to your memory just few seconds before sleeping. Such
information is not encoded. Research shows that we have very little
memory for information that is played aloud in the room during
sleep, although ears do re gister it. (Wood et.al., 1992) In both types
of interference, the greater the similarity of the interfering material,
the greater the interference will be.
Motivated Forgetting :
The concept of motivated forgetting was invented by
Sigmund Freud. He proposed that we repress (unconsciously) or
suppress (consciously) Motivated painful or unacceptable memories
to protect our self -concept , to prevent guilt, embarrassment, sh ame
and to minimize anxiety. But the repressed memories linger and
can be retrieved by some later cue or during therapy. Motivated
forgetting is a form of self -defense mechanism.
C.Tavris and Elliot Aronson (2007) pointed out that memory
is an “unreliab le, self -serving historian”. For example, Ross et.al.
(1981) reported from their experiment that when some people were
told about the benefits of frequent tooth brushing, they recalled
having brushed their teeth frequently in the next two weeks than
those who were not told the benefits of tooth brushing.munotes.in

Page 137

137The concept of motivated forgetting was very popular in mid -
twentieth century psychology but today, many memory researchers
think repression occurs rarely. People’s efforts to intentionally
forget neutral material often succeed, but not when the to be
forgotten material is emotional. So, we may have intrusive
memories of the very traumatic experiences that we would like to
forget.
8.5MEMORY CONSTRUCTION ERRORS
Memory not only gets forgotten, but it al so gets constructed.
Memory is not precise. We infer our past from stored information
plus what we later imagined, selected, changed, expected, rebuilt,
saw or heard. We often construct our memories as we encode
them, and every time we replay a memory, we replace the original
with a slightly modified version. Memory researchers call this
reconsolidation. No matter how accurate and video like our memory
seems, it is full of alterations, even fictions. Joseph LeDoux (2009)
rightly said, “Your memory is only a s good as your last memory.
The fewer times you use it, the more pristine it is”.
8.5.1 Misinformation and Imagination Effects :
Misinformation Effect:
Generally, it is believed that people’s long -term memory
records events that we experience exactly as t hey happened. But
this is not true. In reality, researchers have found that long term
memory is very prone to errors and can easily be altered and
molded. The inaccuracy of long term memory is enhanced by the
misinformation effect, which occurs when mislea ding information is
incorporated into one’s memory after an event. For example,
Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer (1974) conducted over 200
experiments involving more than 20,000 participants. Different
groups of participants saw a video of a car accident a nd then
afterwards were questioned about what they had seen in the video.
It was found that the answers to such questions varied
depending on the way the questions were worded. When asked the
question” How fast were the cars going when they smashed into
each other?” the answer typically involved a higher rate of speed
than when the question was framed as “How fast were the cars
going when they hiteach other?”. Additionally, when the
participants were asked a week later to report whether or not there
was g lass at the scene of the accident, those who had heard the
word 'smashed' in their initial interview were twice as likely to report
broken glass, when in the video there was not any. In fact the video
has not shown any broken glass. (See Fig 8.3)munotes.in

Page 138

138Fig.8.3
Many other follow -up experiments confirmed that
misinformation effect takes place. If we are exposed to misleading
information, we tend to misremember. In fact, researchers said that
so powerful is the misinformation effect that it can influence later
attitudes and behaviors. Since we are not aware that we are being
presented with misinformation, it is not possible for us to pick and
remove suggested ideas out of large pool of real memories.
Filling Memory Gaps:
Our memories get influenced by not only misinformation
effect, but we also tend to fill memory gaps. While describing a
childhood experience to somebody, we tend to fill in the memory
gaps with reasonable guesses and assumptions. After numerous
times of saying the same story, we accept the guess es as real
memory.
Implanted False Memories:
Just listening to a vivid retelling of an event may implant
false memories. In one experiment, University students were
suggested that as children, they became ill after eating spoiled egg
salad. After absorbi ng the suggestion, many of them did not eat
egg-salad sandwich, both immediately and even after four months
(Geraerts et.al. 2008).
Imagining:
Even repeatedly imagining nonexistent actions and events
can create false memories. For example, inanother study by
Elizabeth Loftus ,people were asked to provide details of a incident
in childhood when they had been lost in a shopping mall (which had
NOT happened). By trying to picture details, most people came to
believe that the incident had actually happened; they had acquired
an implanted memory. In another study, Garry et.al. (1996) asked
university students were asked to imagine certain childhood events,
such as breaking a window with their hand or having a skin sample
removed from a finger. One out of four students later recalled the
imagined event as something that really happened.
Imagination Inflation:
Once we have an inaccurate memory, we tend to keep
adding more imagined details. For example, in one experiment,
researcher digitally altered photos fr om a family album to showmunotes.in

Page 139

139some family members taking a hot -air balloon ride. kids with an
implanted memory of a balloon ride later added even more
imagined details, makin g the memory longer, more vivid, with high
confidence in their memories. When they wer e interviewed several
days later, they reported even richer details of their false memories.
The question arises why these misinformation and
imagination effect occurs. Gonsalves et.al. (2004) explained that
misinformation and imagination effects occur b ecause visualizing
something and actually seeing it activates similar brain areas. So,
imagined events also later appear to be more familiar and familiar
things seem more real. The more vividly we can imagine things, the
more likely they are to become memo ries. The human mind, it
seems, comes with built -in photo shopping software.
8.5.2 Source Amnesia:
Very often, it happens that I come across a person whom I
recognize as someone I know but I am unable to place where I
have met this person. Jean Piaget, a famous psychologist, was
surprised as an adult to learn that a vivid detailed memory from his
childhood –about a nursemaid preventing his kidnapping -was
totally false. He constructed this memory from a story often heard
from the nursemaid. So, a person’ sm e m o r yf o rt h ee v e n tm a yb e
accurate, but he may forget where the story came from and
attribute the source of that information to his own experiences. The
information may have come from a story someone told him about
his childhood ( as in case of Jean P iaget), from a movie that a
person has seen, or book he read, from a dream that he used to
have or from a sibling’s experience, etc. These all are sources for
amnesia. Source amnesia or misattribution is at the heart of many
of these false memories.
Sour ce amnesia is the inability to remember where, when or
how previously learned information has been acquired, while
retaining the factual knowledge. This branch of amnesia is
associated with the malfunctioning of one's explicit memory.
Authors and songwrite rs often suffer from this type of amnesia.
They think an idea came from their own creative imagination which
in fact they have unintentionally plagiarized from something they
have earlier read , heard or seen.
Source amnesia also explains déjà vu feeling that almost
two third of us have experienced at some time or the other. Déjà vu
refers to a feeling that you are in a situation that you have already
seen or have been in before. The most common technical definition
of déjà vu (French for “already seen”) is “any subjectively
inappropriate impression of familiarity of a present experience with
an undefined past.”munotes.in

Page 140

140This can be seen as source amnesia -am e m o r y( f r o m
current sensory memory) that we misattribute as being from long
term memory. It generally hap pens to well -educated, well-traveled ,
wealthy ,l i b e r a la n d imaginative young adults (15 to 25 years old) ,
especially when they are tired or stressed out. Research shows that
it is more likely to occur late in the day and late in the week. People
experienci ng déjà vu wonder “how can I recognize a situation I am
experiencing for the first time?” or they may think of reincarnation
(“Imust have experienced this in my previous life”) or they may
think that they had premonition/precognition (“Isaw this scene in
my mind before experiencing it”).
Alan Brown and Elizabeth Marsh (2009) conducted an
experiment in a laboratory to study déjà vu phenomenon. In their
trials, they flashed a symbol at a subliminal level, on a computer
screen, followed by a longer view of the same symbol or different
symbols or no symbols. When a flash was followed by its identical
symbol, participants were five times more likely to say they had
seen that symbol sometime before the experiment. So, half the
participants experienced déjà vu without being aware of why they
are feeling this familiarity. The key to déjà vu seems to be familiarity
with a stimulus without being clear where we have encountered it
before.
Reasons for Déjà vu:
1.Brown and Marsh explained that it is a case of double
perception that suggests that a quick glance at a scene can
make it appear strangely familiar when it is fully perceived
moments later. Brown said, “This is easy to imagine in today’s
distracted society. Let’s say you enter a new museum, glancing
at artwor k while talking on your cell phone. Upon hanging up,
you look around and sense you’ve been there long ago.”
2.By studying patients suffering from epilepcy, neurologists
believe that déjà vu occurs due to temporal lobe processing.
Christopher Moulin and O’Co nnor studied four patients with
damaged temporal lobes who suffered from chronic déjà vu.
These patients greeted strangers like old friends, had no
interest in watching TV or reading newspaper because they
were convinced that they have seen everything befo re. This
suggests that déjà vu may be the result of a small seizure in the
part of the temporal lobe that governs our sense of familiarity.
Hippocampus and frontal lobe processing is responsible for our
consciously remembered details. When temporal lobe an d
hippocampus and frontal lobe are out of sync, we experience a
feeling of familiarity without conscious recall. Then we have
déjà vu as o ursource amnesia forces us to do our best to make
sense of an odd moment.munotes.in

Page 141

1418.5.3 Discerning True and False Memories :
False memories created due to misinformation or
misattribution feel as real as true memories and they can be very
persistent. False memories are often the cause of faulty eyewitness
testimony and faulty eyewitness identification . Hypnotically
refreshed m emories may prove to be inaccurate, especially if the
hypnotist asks leading questions such as “Did you hear loud
noises?”
McFarland & Ross(1987) examined dating partners’
evaluation of their relationship over time. People who fell more in
love after the ir initial evaluation retrospectively exaggerated the
intensity of earlier reports of love; those who broke up the
relationship underestimated their original reports of caring for their
partners. Similarly, when people were asked what was their view
about marijuana or gender issues 10 years ago, recalled attitudes
that were similar to their current views rather than the views they
had actually reported 10 years back.
8.5.4 Children’s Eyewitness Recall :
One interesting question faced by psychologists is how
reliable are children’s eyewitness descriptions. The credibility of
children’s testimony is often questioned due to their
underdeveloped frontal lobes and memory capacity. Ceci &
Bruck’s(1993,1995) have researched the theme of children’s
eyewitness rec all many times. In 1993 and 1995, using
anatomically correct dolls they asked 3-year-oldchildren to indicate
where the pediatrician had touched them. 55% of the children who
had not received genital or anal examinations indicated that they
had been touche d in their private parts. In a different experiment,
Ceci & Bruck (1999,2004) found that by using suggestive
questioning techniques most preschoolers and even many older
children could be induced to report false events, like seeing a thief
stealing food at their daycare.
In another study, Ceci & Bruck had children choose from a
deck of cards with possible events on them such as getting a
mousetrap on your finger and going to the hospital. Once the card
was chosen by a child, an adult would read to that chi ld and ask
“Think real hard, and tell me if this ever happened to you…”. The
same adult repeatedly asked children to think about many real and
fictitious events during the interviews. After 10 weeks, a new adult
asked the same questions and 58% of preschoo lersproduced false
stories with vivid details about one or more events they had never
experienced. Because the stories were so vivid and seemed so
authentic, psychologists could not tell the difference between real
and imagined memories and neither could some of the children.munotes.in

Page 142

142Similarly, in another experiment, when preschoolers merely
overheard an erroneous remark that a magician’s missing rabbit
had gotten loose in their classroom, 78% of children recalled
actually seeing the rabbit in their classroom.
In the light of these studies, the question arises, can we trust
children as eyewitnesses? The answer is yes, if we question
children about the events in neutral words that they understand,
children can often recall accurately what happened and who did it .
Children are especially accurate when they have not talked with an
involved adult prior to the interview and when their disclosure is
made in a first interview with a neutral person who asks non -
leading questions.
8.5.5 Repressed or Constructed Memori es of Abuse?
Many psychotherapists believe that early childhood sexual
abuse results in repressed memories. But other psychologists
believe that such memories may be constructed.
Myers said that two types of tragedies happen when an adult
recollects chi ldhood abuse:
1.)Disbelief of those who come forward. Trauma survivors may not
be believed when telling their secrets.
2.)Falsely accusing the innocent. While trying to dig up supposed
lost child -abuse memories, therapists use techniques like
hypnosis, drugs and guided imagery and thus create the
memories that they are trying to discover. Patients exposed to
such techniques may form an image of a threatening person
and with further visualization, the image grows more vivid. The
patient ends up stunned, angry a nd ready to confront or sue the
remembered abuser. The equally stunned and devastated
parent or relative, who has been accused, vigorously denies the
accusation.
So, w hile the therapists have noble intention of uncovering
the truth, they unintentionally trigger false memories that damage
innocent adults. Psychologists have criticized the therapists’ use of
“memory work” techniques such as guided imagery, hypnosis and
dream analysis to recover memories. The use of such techniques
and creation of false memo ries has devastated and broken many
families . On the other hand, therapists have accused these critics
to be adding to the trauma of victims and helping child molesters.
To overcome this memory war among psychologists, many
professional bodies of psycholog y have issued public statements
as given below.
People who are committed to protecting abused children and to
protecting wrongly accused adults agree on following points –munotes.in

Page 143

1431.Sexual abuse happens: It is too common but there is no
characteristic “survivor sy ndrome” -no group of symptoms that
can allow us to identify the victims of sexual abuse.
2.Injustice happens: Sometimes the guilty walk free and the
innocent are charged .
3.Forgetting happens: The person may simply have been too
young to remember or may not h ave understood the meaning of
his/her experience.
4.Recovered memories are commonplace: When cued, it is
common to dig up old memories. But memories that surface on
their own are more reliable than cued ones.
5.Memories of things happening before the age 3 ar eu n r e l i a b l e .
6.Memories recovered under hypnosis or the influence of drugs is
especially unreliable: Under hypnosis, people will incorporate all
kinds of suggestions into their memories, even memories of
“past lives”.
7.Memories, whether real or false, can be emotionally upsetting:
Both the accuser and the accused may suffer when what was
born of mere suggestion becomes like an actual trauma that
drives bodily stress.
Richard McNally and Elke Geraerts (2009 ) stated that
victims of childhood sexual abuse do not repress their abuse, they
simply stop devoting thoughts and emotions to it and letting go of
the memory is most likely when
The experience, when it occurred was strange, uncomfortable
and confusing rather than being severely traumatic
The abuse only once or only a few times
Victim have not spent time thinking about the abuse, either
because of their own resilience or because no reminders are
available.
8.6IMPROVING MEMORY
Now lastly let us see how we can use this knowledge of
memory to improve our memory, so that you can prepare better for
your exams.
a.)Study Repeatedly: To master any material, use distributed
practice. Give yourself many separate study sessions. Take
advantage of little breaks such as travelling to college/office,
taking a lunch break, etc. Thomas Landauer (2001) advises that
to memorize specific facts and figures, rehearse the name or
number that you are trying to memorize, wait for a few seconds
and then rehearse again, wait a little longer, rehearse again,
then wait still longe r and then rehearse again. The wait shouldmunotes.in

Page 144

144be as long as possible without losing the information. Use recall
method to determine how much you have memorized. Reading
complex material with minimal rehearsal will result in little
retention. Rehearsal and cri tical reflection helps more. It pays to
study actively. Avoid cramming and establish regular study
sessions.
b.)Make the Material Meaningful: You can do this by building up
a network of retrieval cues. Apply the concept to your own life,
form images, unders tand and organize information, relate to
what you already know or have experienced, put it in your own
words instead of mindlessly repeating someone else’s words.
Previous knowledge helps understanding and understanding
improves memory, so the more that yo u know about a topic the
easier it is to learn new, related facts. Making sense of what you
are studying is essential to maximize learning. Relating new
information to familiar information helps, even when the link is
otherwise unimportant. Because you’ve generated the links,
you’re likely to remember them, and they will cue the new
information. When encountering names, we normally ignore the
meaning of the words, but if you use that meaning and link it to
the person, it will help you remember their name.
c.)Activate retrieval Cues: Mentally recreate the situation and the
mood in which your original learning took place. We have better
retrieval when it occurs in the same situation in which we
learned the material.
d.)Use Mnemonic Devices: Associate items with pe g words.
Make up a story that incorporates vivid images of the items. The
best mnemonics are those that utilize positive imagery, humor,
or novelty. You might come up with a rhyme, song, or joke to
help remember a specific segment of information. Chunk
information into acronyms. Create rhythmic rhymes.
e.)Minimize interference: Study before sleep. Do not study topics
one after the other that are likely to interfere with each other.
For example, studying subjects like English, Hindi, Marathi one
after the othe r.
f.)Adequate Sleep :Get enough sleep so that when you awake
you feel fresh. As mentioned before, during sleep the brain
reorganizes and consolidates information for long -term memory.
Sleep deprivation disrupts this process and information does not
get stor ed in long term memory.
g.)Test Your Own Knowledge :Test Your Own Knowledge, both
to rehearse It and to f ind out what you don’t know :Don’t get
carried away into overconfidence by your ability to recognize
information. Test your recall using the retrieval method. Take
practice tests.munotes.in

Page 145

145Check your Progress:
Write short notes on :
a.)Forgetting and two tracks -mind
b.)Encoding failure, storage decay and retrieval failure
c.)Interference and motivated forgetting
d.)Misinformation and imagination effects
e.)Source Amnesia
f.)Children’s eyewitness recall and repressed/constructed
memories
g.)Techniques to improve memory
8.7 SUMMARY
In this unit, we talked about why it is important to understand
the functioning of human memory. While discussing the memory
storage, we said there are two types of memory -explicit and
implicit. In brain, frontal lobes and hippocampus play a major role in
formation of explicit memory. If left side of hippocampus is
damaged, we cannot retain verbal information, though we can
retain spatial information be cause rear part of hippocampus is
involved. It was also emphasized that much of consolidation of
explicit memory occurs during sleep, because hippocampus
processes memories for later retrieval.
The cerebellum and basal ganglia are responsible for implici t
memory. Implicit memory includes skills and habits, conditioned
associations, priming and perceptual learning. Infantile amnesia is
part of implicit memory. Infantile amnesia refers to the fact that
children can't remember events of up to 3y e a r so fa g e but retain
their procedural memory, that is, whatever skills they have learned
in the first three years remain intact but not the memory for the
events. The amygdala is responsible for memory of emotions.
Emotionally charged events are stored much better i no u rm e m o r y
than boring events. That is why we can remember details of a
three -hour movie but not of the one-hour lecture. Flashbulb
memories are the memories of ahighly emotional event and may
trigger with/ without any cue. These memories can be pleasan t/
unpleasant. It has also been found that synaptic changes also take
place if we are exposed to same stimuli repeatedly and these
changes help in improved learning and storing memories. Once the
memories are stored, the next question is how do we know whe ther
memories were stored or no and if they are stored, how to retrieve
them. The research has shown that there are three methods that
indicate whether memory is stored or no. These are recall,
recognition and relearning. Memories can be retrieved with the help
of retrieval cues. Retrieval cues can be priming, context -dependent
memory, state -dependent memory and the serial position effect.munotes.in

Page 146

146Next, we look at what is forgetting and why do people forget
previously stored information. Psychologists are of the opinion that
our brain does not function like computer, it is much more than that.
We have two track mind which works simultaneously. They talked
about two types of amnesia -anterograde and retrograde amnesia.
Both types of amnesia can take place due to in jury, stroke or
disease. In anterograde amnesia we cannot form new memories
from the day we suffer from injury/accident and in retrograde
amnesia, we cannot recall the past events that took place before
the injury/accident. Some of the reasons for forgetti ng are encoding
failure, storage decay, retrieval failure, interference, motivated
forgetting.
Apart from that we can have memory construction errors
such as misinformation and imagination effect, source amnesia.
This brings us to the question of how to differentiate between true
and false memories and can we rely on children's eyewitness
testimony. It also raises questions about whether child abuse
memories are repressed or constructed memories.
Lastly, we talk about how memory can be improved. Though
there are many methods to improve memory, here we talk about
few of them such as repetition, making material meaningful,
activating retrieval cues, using mnemonic devices, minimizing
interference, having sufficient sleep, and testing our own
knowledge repea tedly by using recall method.
8.8 QUESTIONS
1.How do external cues, internal emotions and order of
appearance influence memory retrieval?
2.Define forgetting. Elaborate on any two reasons for forgetting
3.Write a detailed note on memory construction erro rs.
4.Discuss in detail how memory can be improved.
8.9REFERENCE
1)Myers, D. G. (2013). Psychology .10thedition; International
edition. New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint
2013
2)Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2008). Psychology. (Indian sub -
continent adaptation). New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) pvt
ltd.

munotes.in

Page 147

147
Modified Pattern of Question Paper for Semester End
Assessment implemented from 20 20-2021For
Psychology courses at F.Y.B.A.
Duration =3h o u r s Total Marks = 100 (per semester)
All 5 questions carry 20 marks and are compulsory.
There will be internal choice in each Question.
Q1. Attempt any two questions (module 1 ) 20marks
A
B
C
Q2. Attempt any two questions (module 2) 20marks
A
B
C
Q3. Attempt any two questions (module 3 ) 20marks
A
B
C
Q4. Attempt any two questions (module 4) 20marks
A
B
C
Q5. Attempt any two questions (module 1 ,2,3,4One question
from each module) 20 marks
A
B
C
D
munotes.in